The Proactive Coping Inventory (PCI) 
Esther R. Greenglass York University, Canada
in collaboration with Ralf Schwarzer
Freie Universität Berlin, Germany  

The Proactive Coping Inventory consists of 18 subscales, describing various dimensions of behavior and cognition that are important for proactive coping. Proactive coping (PC) is driven, among others, by Proactive Attitude (PA). These are beliefs in the rich potential of changes that can be made to improve oneself and one’s environment (Schwarzer, 1997). Behaviors and cognitions associated with these dimensions can occur at any point in time. 

Description of Subscales

 I Proactive Stress Appraisal

1. Identification of the problem(s)

2. Matching stressors / resources

3. Goal setting

In Proactive Stress Appraisal, individuals identify obstacles to their goals which are seen as challenging, threatening, and harmful and which must be managed primarily through mobilization of individual and social resources. At the same time, the proactive individual avoids problems that are not solvable or controllable. They transfer their coping efforts to more controllable domains through well–designed strategies. During Proactive Stress Appraisal the individual is constantly matching environmental demands and available resources.

From previous experience and observing others, we gain information about the kinds of situation amenable to change and where to exert control. The main difference between the proactive individual and less proactive ones is that the former focuses energy and time on solvable problems, abandons problems that are not solvable, and can generally identify those within their own range of coping ability. In other words, they are particularly adept at first, distinguishing soluable from insoluble problems and, second, they are very good at allocating resources accordingly.

Proactive individuals anticipate stressful encounters (such as an exam) and prepare for them. They also prepare for uncertain events (such as a natural disaster) to lessen the impact if they should ever occur.

Three processes occur during Proactive Stress Appraisal. Identification of the problem, Matching stressors and resources, and Goal setting in terms of identifying stressors to be managed and problems to be solved.

II Proactive Reflective Coping

1. Mental simulation

2. Vision of success scenarios

During Proactive Reflective Coping, proactive individuals imagine their course(s) of action in relation to problem–solving and coping. Not only do they visualize the occurrence of a stressful event(s) as a sense of impending danger, they also imagine the resources they will deploy to deal with their stressors. They imagine themselves changing the situation to their benefit and they actually can see themselves solving a problem. Not leaving things to chance, the proactive individual is always seeking and discarding solutions. The proactive individual thinks through likely future events, anticipates stressors, and imagines proactive measures to minimize their occurrence. In mental simulation, the proactive individual visualizes a future temporal orientation, rehearses likely future events, and fantasizes about them. The proactive individual imagines ways of mobilizing resources to cope with challenge. This could be called daydreaming or fantisizing but it has a goal and a purpose in the coping process since it vicariously tries out various solutions and discards "dead–end" ones through rehearsal.

III Proactive Resource Management

1. Identification of social support

2. Mobilization of support

3. Utilization of support

4. Utilization of non–social resources

Proactive Resource Management involves the management of both social and non–social resources. With social resources, there is identification, mobilization and utilization of resources usually identified as held by others. This can include information, practical assistance, advice, encouragement, self validation, social comparison, and appraisal support. The proactive individual interacts directly with others, observes them dealing with their own challenges, and he/she will enage in vicarious problem–solving. Proactive individual, through past experience and practice, are able to identify resources in their social environment which can facilitate their goal attainment. They are able to secure resources from others and transform them into their own behavioral and cognitive coping repertoire. The individual’s support network is particularly helpful in providing information and appraisals relevant to ambiguous or potential stressors. Information from the support network is also helpful to the proactive individual in that it consists of important feedback from others as to the "objective" effectiveness of the coping efforts of the proactive individual., feedback which can be useful in developing, modifying and improving coping efforts. Non–social resource management refers to the utilization of resources such as time, energy, money, and health in coping strategies.

IV Proactive Emotional Coping

1. Distancing oneself from chronic distractions (stressors)

2 (a) Creating temporal space

2 (b) Creating physical space

In the Proactive Emotional Coping mode, the individual distances her/himself from stressors and actively creates temporal and physical space which is free of chronic distraction and thus maximizes the degree to high proactive efforts can be taken. It is recognized here that individuals are constantly under seige by an abundance of stressors and distractions which vary in importance and magnitude and which generate worry. The risk is that all stressors end up being treated as equally important since individual stressors lose their priorities. One of the functions of Proactive Emotional Coping is that it creates freedom from "busyness" of day–to–day hassles and increases physical and temporal space. With less distractions, the proactive individual can focus on the coping process. It is emotional coping in that its goal is that of emotion–regulation, to promote a feeling of well–being and tranquility by easing anxiety, stress and impatience through active mental focusing and physical activity. It reduces the stimulation level of "busyness" thus allowing the individual greater freedom to evolve proactive coping strategies.

V Proactive Goal–Oriented Coping Action

1. Individual responsibility

2. Persistence

(a) Effort

(b) Overcoming obstacles

3. Direct action

4. Preventive coping

5. Proactive planning

Proactive Goal–oriented Coping Action describes behaviors, attitudes and cognitions that accompany the active prevention of problems before they develop and the active solution of problems/stressors which already confront the individual. The proactive individual in this stage initiates action, takes responsibility for his or her actions while at the same time overcomes obstacles. The proactive individual persists in the face of adversity. This applies equally to prevention of the development of potential stressors as well as to persistent, existing stressors.

  Questionnaire Items Sorted by Subscales

I Proactive Stress Appraisal

1. Identification of the problem.

1. I attend to those problems I can deal with.

2. When there is a problem at work or at school, I am usually the first to notice it.

3. I think constantly about solving all problems that might come my way. (–)

4. Rather than bang my head against a stone wall, I go on to something else when a problem is insoluble.

5. I try to solve problems that affect me the most.

6. I try to solve the problems that I have the power to do something about.

7. Even though a lot of things may be going wrong at work or at school, I quickly find out which problems are most important.

8. I anticipate problems before they materialize.

9. I foresee trouble before others notice it.

2. Matching stressors and resources

1. I am aware of my resources when gauging stressful events.

2. I tackle mainly those problems that are within my range of control.

3. I bring my coping efforts in line with the stressors I experience, that is, I roll with the punches.

4. I change my attitude to reduce the problem.

5. I try to pinpoint what I need to succeed.

3. Goal–Setting

1.There aren’t enough hours in a day to deal with my problems. (–)

2. I am fairly focused when it comes to solving my problems.

3. I have my priorities when it comes to solving my problems.

4.I find a substitute goal in view of changing circumstances.

5. I set realistic goals; I know what I am capable of doing.

6. I make lists and try to focus on the most important things first.

7. I set mini–goals that are attainable and reward myself.

II Proactive Reflective Coping

1. Mental simulation

1. When things go well at work or at school, I am always aware of what can go wrong and I am prepared.

2. I try to manage my money well in order to avoid being destitute in old age.

3. I don’t think too much about what I would do in a crisis as long as things are going well. (–)

4. Rather than acting impulsively, I usually think of various ways to solve a problem.

5. I take action only after thinking carefully about a problem.

6. In my mind I go through many different scenarios in order to prepare myself for differnt outcomes.

7. I think about every possible outcome to a problem before tackling it.

8. I tackle a problem by thinking about realistic alternatives.

9. I address a problem from various angles until I find the appropriate action.

2. Vision of success scenarios

1. Before tackling a difficult task I imagine success scenarios.

2. I imagine myself solving a difficult problem before I actually have to face it.

3. When I have a problem with my co–workers, friends, or family, I imagine beforehand how I will deal with them successfully.

4. When I am scheduled for an inteview, I role play several versions of it until I feel more relaxed.

5. When there are serious misunderstandings with co–workers, family members or friends, I practice before how I will deal with them.

6. When I apply for a position, I imagine myself filling it.

7. I imagine myself solving difficult problems.

8. I visualize my dreams and try to achieve them.

9. When I have a problem, I usually see myself in a no–win situation. (–)

10. I often see myself failing so I don't get my hopes up too high. (–)

III Proactive Resource Management

1. Identification of social support

1. I can usually identify people who can help me develop my own solutions to problems.

2. If I’m having a problem with my co–workers, friends or family, I usually know who I can go to for help.

3. If I am depressed, I know who I can call to help me feel better.

4. I do not isolate myself, but look for others with mutual interests.

5. When I’m depressed, I get out and talk to others.

6. I have a much easier time coping with stress as long as my family and personal relations are stable.

7. I know who can be counted on when the chips are down.

2. Mobilization of social support

1. Before getting messed up with a problem, I’ll call a friend to talk about it.

2. I am good at communicating with others.

3.When I am in trouble I can usually work out something with the help of others.

4. When others support me, I reciprocate.

5. I maintain good relationships with my boss, co–workers, friends and family to prevent conflict.

6. I confide my feelings in others to build up and maintain close relationships.

7. I try to talk and explain my stress in order to get feedback from my friends.

3. Utilization of social support

1. When solving my own problems, other people’s advice can be helpful.

2. Observing how others deal with their difficulties has been useful to me.

3. Information I get from others has often helped me deal with my problems.

4. When I get sick, other people can be really helpful to me.

5. Others help me feel cared for.

6. I ask others what they would do in my situation.

7. Talking to others can be really useful because it provides another perspective on the problem.

4. Utilization of non–social resources

1. I conserve my energy so I can solve important problems.

2. Rather than spending every cent I make, I like to save for a rainy day.

3. Time is a precious commodity to me, I don’t waste it.

4. I don’t abuse my body because without my health I cannot achieve my goals.

IV Proactive Emotional Coping

1. Distancing oneself from chronic distractions (stressors)

1. Bath or shower time is a wonderful opportunity to forget the troubles of the day.

2. In the privacy of my car, I can think of pleasant things not my troubles.

3. I work out regularly and forget my worries.

4. Yoga helps me relax and forget about daily hassles.

5. I try to take time each day to relax from my busy schedule.

6. Taking time for myself is an important part of my daily plan.

7. I make use of vacations in order to be able to work better afterward.

8. I love to read novels as a form of escape.

9. I find that TV is great for unwinding.

10. I like to listen to music when working out my problems.

11. I think of a pleasant moment I have enjoyed in the past.

12. I go for a walk to distance myself from my problems.

13. When I have a problem, I like to sleep on it.

14. When I have a problem, I usually let it simmer on the back burner for a while.

15. If I find a problem too difficult, sometimes I put it aside until I’m ready to deal with it.

2 (a) Creating temporal space

1. When I have some distance from my problems, I can see solutions more clearly.

2. I try not to make snap decisions when I am confronted with a problem.

3. I go on a vacation to be able to see more clearly solutions to an important problem.

2 (b) Creating physical space

1. While driving in my car, I can think more clearly of solutions to my problems.

2. Walking or jogging present a wonderful opportunity to put things in perspective.

3. When I relax under a shower, I begin to see how I should approach a difficult problem.

4. While driving in my car I can plan my strategy for the day.

5. I have trouble finding a quiet spot, away from distractions to think through my problems. (–)

6. I like to think in bed before going to sleep.

V Proactive Goal–Oriented Coping Action

1. Individual responsibility

1. I can’t really take responsibility for solving my own problems. (–)

2. I like people to solve my problems for me. (–)

3. When I experience a problem, I take the initiative in resolving it.

4. After attaining a goal, I look for another, more challenging one.

5. I do not rest on my laurels.

6. When I have difficulties, I take the initiative in resolving them.

2. Persistence

(a) Effort

1. When I am confronted with a difficult problem, I work hard to find a solution.

2. I am not a quitter.

3. I put off unpleasant activities that have to be done. (–)

4. I double my effort to solve a severe problem.

5. I am determined when working on a problem.

6. I never give up no matter how negative the situation is.

7. If someone tells me I can’t do something, you can be sure I will do it.

(b) Overcoming obstacles

1. When barriers come up, I invest more effort.

2. Obstacles to my goals don’t deter me.

3. I recover from my setbacks more easily than others.

4. When people tell me that something is too difficult, I usually listen to their advice. (–)

5. I like challenges and beating the odds.

6. I always try to find a way to work around obstacles; nothing really stops me.

7. I turn obstacles into positive experiences.

8. Despite numerous setbacks, I usually succeed in getting what I want.

9. When barriers come up, I get more depressed. (–)

10. When obstacles occur, I get stressed. (–)

11. When obstacles are in my way, I tend to work less at the problem. (–)

3. Direct action

1. I break down a problem into smaller parts and do one part at a time.

2. I do something about an adverse situation.

3. When I have a problem, I procrastinate rather than doing something about it. (–)

4. I confront my problems.

5.I deal with problems as they arise rather than putting them off.

6. I am a "take charge" person.

7. I try to let things work out on their own. (–)

8. Tackling a problem is better than ignoring it.

9. I confront my problems immediately, I don't let them linger.

10. I often find ways to break down difficult problems into manageable components.

4. Preventive coping

1. I prepare for adverse events.

2. Before disaster strikes I am well–prepared for its consequences.

3. I develop my job skills to protect myself against unemployment.

4. I make sure my family is well taken care of to protect them from adversity in the future.

5. I take care of myself so I won’t get sick.

6. I think ahead to avoid dangerous situations.

7. I plan for future eventualities.

8. I learn how to prevent myself from getting anxious, over–tired, or depressed.

5. Proactive planning

1. Instead of acting impusively, I think of various ways I can solve a problem.

2. I plan my strategies to change a situation before I act.

3. I make a plan and follow it.

4. I plan strategies for what I hope will be the best possible outcome.

5. I don’t like suprises, I’d like to prepare for adverse events.

6. I make rash decisions that I usually regret later. (–)

Response Format  

These items should be scattered throughout a questionnaire. You may use this scale for your research without asking, but we would like to learn about your results. Contact us at the above address for further scoring information. Before translating the scale into a foreign language, check with us to obtain the latest version.

References

Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stich in time: Self–regulation and proactive coping. Psychological Bulletin, 121 (3) 417–436.

Burke, R. J., Greenglass, E. R., & Schwarzer, R. (1996). Predicting teacher burnout over time: Effects of work stress, socialsupport, and self-doubts on burnout and its consequences. Anxiety, Stress,and Coping: An International Journal, 9 (3), 261-275.

Greenglass, E. (1995). Gender, work stress and coping: Theoretical implications. For special issue on gender in the workplace in the Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10(6), 121-134.

Greenglass, E., Fiksenbaum, L., & Burke, R.J. (1996). Components of social support, buffering effects and burnout: Implications for psychological functioning. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 9, 185-197.

Greenglass, E. (with R J. Burke). (1996). Work stress, social support, psychological burnout and emotional and physical well-being among teachers. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 1, 193-205.

Greenglass, E.R., Burke, R. J., & Konarski, R. (1997). The impact of social support on the development of burnout in teachers: Examination of a model. Work and Stress, 11 (3), 267-278.

Schwarzer, R. (1997). The Proactive Attitude Scale . (Click here)

Schmitz, G. & Schwarzer, R. (submitted, 1998). Proaktive Einstellung von Lehrern: Konstruktbeschreibung und psychometrische Analysen [Teachers' proactive attitude: Construct description and psychometric analyses].

Last Update: 31 Jan 1998.