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SIGMA Scientific Committee on Languages |
Alexander Schwarz and Sabine Houda
Université de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
"Switzerland can be seen as a model since, for a large part of its history, it was characterized by different, coexisting languages and cultures, while the large European nations constructed themselves around the idea of a unifying language and culture, and a national territory." (Merkt, 29) The term, "the Swiss model," definitely exists, and takes into account a form of communication that would, ideally, govern relations between citizens, such that, "all Swiss people can express themselves in their native language and make themselves understood by their fellow citizens." (Défi, 100) This model is implicit, not spelled out in any legislation. Article 116 of the Constitution of 1848 stipulates only that German, French and Italian will be accorded the status of national languages. Since 1938, Romantsch has also been considered a national language. Until now, however, only the first three languages have been used in official government business. In the Constitution, there is no indication that Swiss Germans speak dialects that differ significantly from standard German, which is taught in school.
The two contradictory principles that govern political discussion are also not mentioned in the Constitution, namely the territorial principle that results from the observation that the four national languages more or less correspond to a territorial division, and the principle of freedom to use one's own language, which would promote, in relation to other languages, the use of the national languages throughout Switzerland.
The latest federal census, carried out in 1990 on the entire Swiss population, indicates the followinig breakdown of languages: German 63.7%, French 19.2%, Italian 7.6%, Romantsch 0.6%, others 8.9% (1 Spanish, 2 southern Slavic, 3 Portuguese, 4 Turkish, 5 English, 6 Albanian)
In this same year, there were 1,246,000 foreigners in Switzerland, 18.1% of the total population. But, according to Lüdi, this figure is not pertinent to language use: "Many foreigners speak the regional language, and many Swiss people do not." (Lüdi, Babylonia, 7) Within each linguistic region, the percentage of people who do not speak the dominant language is as follows for 1990: in French-speaking Switzerland, 23% non-native speakers of French; in German-speaking Switzerland, 14.3% non-native speakers of German; in Italian-speaking Switzerland, 16.9% non-native speakers of Italian; in the Grisons, 26.7% non-native speakers of Romantsch. "At the end of the twentieth century, Switzerland remains officially quadrilingual, but in reality the country is becoming more and more multilingual," as these figures show (Lüdi, Modèles, 1).
This multilingualism is reflected, as elsewhere, in the schools, which are becoming more and more heterogeneous and include, in certain cantons, above all those that are urban and situated on a border, more than a third of students whose native language is not that of the region. This was already the case for Geneva and the city of Basel in the mid-eighties. (Lüdi, Plurilinguisme, 336 & 370) At the same time, it is important to recognize that German and French are privileged as second national languages taught in school.
Professionally speaking, Marco Polli goes so far as to say that there are only "one and a half national languages" in Switzerland, since the capital, Bern, is mostly German-speaking and since the Swiss-German cities, Zurich and Basel, are the headquarters for many businesses. (Polli, 25) In this country, the teaching of foreign languages is nonetheless fundamentally important for cultural as well as economic and political exchanges between the different linguistic regions.
According to the statistics of the OFS, one fifth of the population holds a degree from an institution of higher education in Switzerland. There are two types of advanced study: universities and professional schools. Two times more non-academic degrees are awarded than academic degrees. There are two times more men than women undertaking advanced studies; however, women form a majority in language studies (60%) and in the teaching professions (75%). The proportion of women occupying high and prestigious positions in the teaching professions is nonetheless low (17% in institutions of higher education, and barely 3% of professors). Additionally, a minority of the student population in general pursues teaching as a profession. (Filles-Femmes, 40-47)
As far as university instuction goes, the OFS uses three criteria to distinguish the principal structural differences among institutions of higher education:
A university in the Ticino is scheduled to open by the end of the year. It will include three faculties, among them economics and communication. At Lucerne, there is, in addition, a faculty of theology.
In Switzerland there are only public universities, but there are also a huge number of public and private post-secondary schools in all the cantons. Thus many non-university offerings in post-secondary professional schools are available. The Erasmus office has drawn up a list that, in itself, includes 136 post-secondary schools in Switzerland. Some categories include technical schools, schools of business administration, of economics and administration, of restaurant management and tourism, of applied art, of specialized education, of social work, schools for medical assistants, etc. There is a general move to coordinate these schools and to improve their status by creating specialized cantonal institutions of higher education.
Important steps have already been taken to raise the status of upper-level professional training. In April of 1994, the government presented its completed plan for the creation of specialized institutions of higher education ("Hautes écoles spécialisées," or HES). "The plan is to create a course of study progressing from apprenticeship to professional baccalaureate to the specialized institutions of higher education, and running parallel to the course of study progressing from the sixth-form college ("gymnase") to the university." (Wuthrich, L'AGEFI, 6.6.2294) Some fifty schools for advanced technical study, for economics and business, and for applied art will be progressively (between 1996 and 2003) transformed into ten specialized institutions of higher education. Entrance to these institutions will be permitted with a new vocational School Leaving Certificate (maturité) exam, which is now being developed. This project is important for more than one purpose, according to the head of the Department of Public Economics, Jean-Pascal Delamuraz: "First, we need to widen the range of courses of study offered at the university, including scientific and technical studies, which should be taught at a higher level than is now the case in schools for engineering, economics and applied art. Secondly, the possibility of continuing education for all managers should be guaranteed by law and, finally, the specialized institutions of higher education should work closely with business and industry on research and development projects. This reform should also permit Swiss professional degrees to be recognized at the same level as other European degrees." (L'Impartial, 4.6.1994) At the higher, or tertiary level of foreign language study, there are only a few regulations governing foreign languages. The only existing federal legislation concerns the use of German, French and Italian as languges of instruction in the engineering schools, where the principle of linguistic freedom is officially operative.
The cantons decide which foreign languages are to be learned during compulsory school education, while taking into account the Swiss federal system. Whatever the case, regional variations and linguistic ties (French, Italian, Romantsch) prevent the schools from adopting a uniform programme. In the "Ordonnance sur la reconnaissance des certificats de maturité" (ORM), which became national law in 1985, the only stipulation is that a second national language should be studied, in addition to one's native language. This stipulation will remain in the new ORM, which is now being developed. The year in which students begin to learn their first "foreign language" varies, from canton to canton, between the third and the sixth year. In comparison to other European countries, this is a relatively late beginning. (Tschoumy, 4) Students are mostly free to choose which second foreign language they will learn in the course of their compulsory school education: either the third national language, or English, or sometimes Spanish or Russian. They usually start this second language in their seventh year. Those students specializing in modern languages must learn a third foreign language, also starting in their seventh year. English, the language of international communication, is becoming more and more predominant. Nonetheless, "the requirement that a national language be taught as the first foreign language, as the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Directors of Public Education (CDIP) recommended in 1975, attests to the desire on the part of education [and political] officials to maintain multilingualism in Switzerland. Foreign language instruction should contribute to cross-cultural understanding, and to maintaining national cohesion." (Réforme, 13)
Since 1975, the CDIP made the following proposals in its recommendations (Laubscher, 9-29 & 57ff):
In compulsory secondary education (the Swiss school system is shown in appendix 1 in a simplified diagram), foreign language instruction is not only subject to regulation, but is also very well documented and studied. In addition to the proposals cited above, the CDIP published the "Basic Study Programme for Schools Awarding the School Leaving Certificate" in 1992. This document contains recommendations that suggest a direction for the schools and cantons that are responsible for education. Along with the traditional role of the last three years of secondary education, which aim to promote "communicative, cultural and aesthetic knowledge" in the areas of language and literature, the "Basic Study Programme" suggests that it is important to cultivate openness to the world, and particularly to Europe: "Our world's geographical mobility should accompany cultural mobility and an open mind." (Plans, 20) In multicultural Europe, the goal of foreign language instruction is to promote communication and economic, political and cultural exchanges, as well as mobility for students and professionals.
In principle, the School Leaving Certificate permits access to the university. Mastering the foreign languages tested in the School Leaving Certificate permits one to "communicate both orally and in writing" in the language, to "have access to and make use of various written and oral forms of communication": literature, the theater, newspaper or magazine articles, radio or television programmes, and to "know how to obtain information, to deal with it, and to present it orally or in writing," (Plans, 45). These abilities are an advantage for any area of study at the university where, in many cases, one must know at least the second national language and English in order to read specialized or litarary texts.
All the Swiss universities offer traditional programmes in language and literature. (For a summary of different areas of language study in Swiss universities, see appendix 2.1.) As for the content of these programmes, linguistics and literature (modern, Medieval and regional) are combined in the larger departments. The respective emphasis on these areas varies from one university and from one discipline to another. There is no obligation to cover all of them in every department. Modern literature is still particularly attractive to students. As for linguistics, its growing importance is reflected in the creation of new endowed chairs. The areas of specialization for these chairs may vary greatly, from general linguistics, to linguistics of a particular language, to philology and applied linguistics. Linguistics does not necessarily concern itself with the didactics (theory of teaching a specific discipline) of foreign language teaching. Nonetheless, certain professors who study the linguistics of a specific language are interested in its didactics as a first or foreign language. In these cases, the subjects of study can be chosen for exams, or as a thesis topic (undergraduate dissertaion). The differences between schools, disciplines and even between professors are thus important.
Outside of the above-mentioned traditional areas of study, each university or department develops its own specializations. For example, the German department of the University of Lausanne offers courses/seminars on literary translation, German civilization and Swiss-German literature. On the other hand, a student wishing to specialize in the grammar of German as a foreign language would be better off taking courses at Neuchâtel. Certain languages, such as Japanese and Chinese among others, are concentrated at a few universities.
In general, practical language work, focusing on grammar (translation), phonology, argumentation and writing (workshops), is taught in addition to literature and linguistics. This practical work is aimed at students whose native language is not the one being taught, and it is not required in all universities. At Lausanne, it is tested in an exam from which native speakers are exempt. Thus, the intermediate examinations, taken at the end of the first half of university studies, are varied at Lausanne; they include more literature for German-speaking students and test mastery of the language for the others. Nonetheless, the university degree requires the same knowledge for all students.
The departments that teach the languages which are covered in the School Leaving Certificate (German, English, French, Italian, sometimes Spanish and Russian) conduct courses only in this language. The degrees awarded thus reflect a high level of competence. At Lausanne again, all courses on German language and literature are conducted in German. This implies a thorough knowledge of the language, since the courses are attended by native German speakers as well as native speakers of French and other languages.
In learning languages that are not covered in the School Leaving Certificate, students with a basic knowledge possess a distinct advantage. The departmental programme makes students who wish to study subjects like Slavic languages aware that intensive summer courses in language, literature and culture are offered at Slavic universities. Language courses in the appropriate country during one's course of study are also highly recommended. For these languages, the first segment (above all the first two years) of study focuses on the language itself. Then, literature and culture come to occupy a more important place.
Traditional language and literary studies are included in the framework of arts programmes. These generally involve three subjects, including a principal subject for which the student writes a dissertation (an undergraduate dissertation). Numerous combinations of subjects are possible, and students may even choose their secondary subjects outside of the faculty of arts, or outside the university (for example, economics, psychology, or music at the conservatory). Very few students study only languages. Besides, it is most often not permitted for students to combine three modern foreign languages. The University of Geneva requires a foreign language (classical or modern) as a subject in any course of study in the arts. Certain subjects (French, history, archaelogy, Italian, Spanish, linguistics) require additional instruction in Latin for students who have never studied it. Studies in the arts are officially recognized, in Swiss-French universities, by the intermediate exams. In all the universities, they end with the final exams. The time to degree is determined by the canton in which the university is located. According to the ruling, the minimum length of time is 8 semesters; it is actually, on average, between 10 and 12 semesters, above all for those studying modern foreign languages, who need to effect a stay and take language courses in a foreign country. (These stays are either recommended or required, and last from three months to a year.) For this purpose, there are exchange programmes with universities throughout the world.
Exchange programmes, both within Switzerland and with foreign countries, are now widely used. In the last few years, great progress has been made in coordinating with other Swiss universities. As a way of encouraging exchanges among Swiss universities (CH-Unimobil), curricula have been made compatible, and most disciplines recognize the work done, courses taken and exams taken at other universities. International exchanges rely on bilateral agreements with the chosen universities (in the first instance with those of the United States, Eastern European countries, and Asia), and rely on the Erasmus programme. The efforts made by Swiss university administrators to encourage these exchanges are linked to the integration of Europe.
"Switzerland has been associated with the EC's Erasmus programme since the fall of 1992. This collaboration actually began in 1987, and Switzerland made a bilateral agreement with the EC that took effect before December 6, 1993 (date of the popular vote on the European Economic Space [EES]." (Streckhausen, programme, 5) This agreement was not renewed in January of 1995, the first date on which new negotiations might have been requested. "Switzerland's negative vote on the EES has forced it to gain access to the EC's programmes through bilateral agreements (as it has until now); yet a bilateral agreement presupposes a willingness on both sides." (ibid., 24-25) The positive contribution of the Erasmus programme has been unanimously recognized. "Erasmus has favored Swiss students' mobility. It has permitted our country to occupy a more important position in international exchanges, and it has contributed to the recognition of studies abroad." (Streckeisen, experts, 34) In addition, professors and students have shown themselves to be enthusiastic about this programme. The growing number of participants attests to its attraction (353 participants in the first year, 1992/3; more than 900 in 1994/5).
"The exchange students' motivations are situated between two extremes: receiving training in their chosen discipline and broadening their cultural horizons. The first impulse is associated with intellectual curiosity; the second is linked to a fascination with the unknown," (ibid., 27). A survey conducted by the sociologist Ursula Streckeisen reveals that students adopt a diffent mode of thinking depending on the subject they are studying. She talks about "Fachkulturen," cultures that are specific to a discipline (Streckeisen, studentische Mobilität, 10). For students in the human and social sciences, education and real-life experience are closely linked. This is not the case for students of the exact sciences, who have at their disposal an international terminology that is specific to their subject. The more standardized a course of study (like medicine) is, the more students mention reasons for studying abroad like wanting to "see something different," to broaden their horizons.
Linguistic motivations (such as the desire to practice and improve a commonly-used language, usually English, French, and German; sometimes Italian and Spanish as well) play an important role given that, "in our social representations, the unknown is associated with geograpical distance and linguistic difference," (Streckeisen, experts, 36). Nonetheless, students sometimes underestimate lingusitic difficulties, and are surprised when they arrive in their host country. Everyday language is the source of the most difficulties, since specialized language is more standardized. "It must be acknowledged that exchange programmes are evasive about the degree of fluency required in the language of the host country, and do not say to what extent it is possible to acquire skills during the stay abroad," (ibid., 25).
The "Ecoles de français moderne" are primary examples of "alternative" language programmes in Swiss universities. The EFMs at Lausanne and Neuchâtel, as well as their counterparts in Geneva (Ecole de Langue et Civilisation Françaises) and Fribourg (Institut pratique de français; Institut für deutsche Sprache, for German) offer foreign-language courses focused on practical language work. At Lausanne, the time to degree is at least four semesters. A degree from one of these schools allows one to teach French as a foreign language in non-French-speaking countries. The Institut für deutsche Sprache in Fribourg is geared to students from all faculties, to Erasmus exchange students, to candidates for the "admission exam" (for students who don't have the Swiss School Leaving Certificate ["maturité"] and who wish to study at a the university), as well as to future teachers of German as a foreign language. These schools were the ones to develop and manage the universities' language labs.
When these language laboratories were created, the need for scientific collaboration in applied linguistics became evident; thus, the Inter-university Commission on Applied Linguistics (CILA) was established in 1965. Recently, the researchers have formed a new group, the Swiss Association for Applied Linguistics, established in 1994. This group edits the ASLA Bulletin (formerly the CILA Bulletin). The Foundation for Languages and Cultures is a second organization devoted to language learning and teaching. It edits the journal "Babylonia." Two chairs in applied linguistics exist in Switzerland, one in Lausanne, the other in Neuchâtel.
There are very few permanent postgraduate programmes in the arts, particularly in languages. Postgraduate seminars are organized jointly, around a pre-defined topic, by several Swiss-French universities. These programmes include not only the Swiss-French universities, but also Bern and Basel.
Certain universities have created specialized post-graduate degrees, which open up the possibility of instructional programmes. In the field of foreign-language teaching, Fribourg has established an 18-month post-graduate programme ("Nachdiplomkurs SprachlehrerIn"). This programme leads to a certificate permitting one to teach in professional and business schools. The University of Geneva offers the possiblility of obtaining, in the faculty of arts, a Complementary Certificate in the Didactics of Second-Language Teaching. This selective course of study (no more than 25 participants) lasts between 3 and 4 years, and is geared to students with university degrees who have three years of professional experience teaching a foreign language. Its goal is to refresh student's skills, to capitalize on their experience, to help them integrate new technology, etc. This programme of study is meant for teachers in private schools, language schools, or reception centers for foreigners. Other post-graduate programmes are organized jointly by the univerities of Basel, Freiburg im Breisgau and Strasbourg, as well as by the Swiss Linguistics Association.
According to the results of the 1993 study (Diem) on the professional situation of the previous year's graduates, 82.3% of them were working at a good job, while 9.2% were looking for work. The majority of the graduates were employed in a field related to their studies. That such a large number of young graduates were unemployed in the year after they completed their studies is "a new situation in Switzerland," (Diem, 11). Linguistic region also plays a role in determining graduates' chances of finding employment. While 13.7% of university graduates in French-speaking Switzerland were unemployed in 1993, only 7.1% in German-speaking Switzerland were unemployed. Unemployment affects mostly graduates in the social sciences (14.7%), in economics (12.1%), and in the arts (11.9%).
In the arts, teaching remains the primary source of employment for graduates, although the percentage of graduates whose first job involved teaching in a school decreased from 58.7% in 1983 to 37.9% in 1993. These figures can be explained by the current uncertain situation, which makes school administrators hesitate to create new teaching positions. More and more frequently, graduates in the arts are finding jobs in various other areas: cultural activities, the private and public sectors. The number of those working part time (60.5%), as well as the number of those working in a field that has little or no relation to their academic training (13.8%), is high in comparison to the figures for graduates in other fields. Additionally, almost a third of graduates in the arts hold a job that does not require a university education.
The training that teachers receive is dependent on the level at which they teach and on the canton. The courses of study leading to this profession are so diverse that even the responsible organizations have only a partial view. "There are more than 140 possible training programmes that prepare students to teach in the public sector," (Badertscher, 5). It is also not surprising that people are only aware of the offerings of their own training programme, which correspond to the needs of their canton's school system. Additionally, many reforms are underway, which makes any evaluation tenuous. The "Manuel de la formation de base des enseignantes et enseignants en Suisse" (ibid.) describes in great detail the different structures, conditions and qualifications for teachers in each canton. From this manual, we take the following observations:
In discussing the length of studies and the content of the training programmes for teachers at the secondary level, we will limit ourselves to two concrete examples. The University of Bern offers training leading to certification as a "collège" teacher. Future teachers are trained between four and five years in a specific context, and obtain a secondary teacher's ceritificate, (which does not imply that they also obtain a university degree. In connection with a course of study that leads to the university degree, the University of Bern offers the possibility of receiving training in pedagogy and didactics in order to teach at the sixth-form level while one is working toward a university degree. For future foreign-language teachers, a stay in the appropriate linguistic region is required (120 days in a French-speaking country and 60 days in an Italian- or English-speaking country. This course of study theoretically lasts 6 years; in practice it takes 15 semesters, on the average, to obtain a degree as a sixth-form level teacher in Bern. Exams, which include an essay to be discussed and an assessment test at the end of practice teaching, are taken at the end of this training. It is also possible to begin training as a teacher at the end of one's university studies. The programme then takes one year of full-time study, or two years of half-time study to complete.
At Lausanne, no difference is made beween upper-level (years 10 through 12) and lower-level (years 6 through 9) secondary teaching. Basic training for teachers requires a preliminary university degree, which allows admission to the teacher-training college. This programme lasts one year, during which students divide their time between practical work (60%), and training in didactics and pedagogy (40%). Some of the courses focus specifically on the subjects to be taught. There is no final exam, since students are evaluated continuously during their year of training (in seminar participation, practice teaching, and assessment lessons). Characteristic of teacher training in Lausanne is the requirement that, in order to be admitted to the programme, students must have a bachelor's degree in two subjects taught in schools, of which one must be a language (French, German, Italian or English). Here too, a six-month stay abroad is required for foreign languages. Since 1985, students in Neuchltel have been required to spend a year in the linguistic region appropriate to the foreign language that they wish to teach in order to obtain a teacher's diploma. (Bulletin NE 36, 17)
Since October 1994, secondary-teaching degrees from any canton have been guaranteed recognition throughout Switzerland.
As stated before (in 2.2), the "écoles de français moderne" award "Diplômes de maître de français (langue étrangère)." However, these diplomas are not officially recognized in Switzerland. A counterpart to this diploma for German exists, as far as we know, only in Fribourg.
Students focusing on teaching have the possibility of signing up for substitute teaching spots. This opportunity, which permits them to obtain professional experience while they are still completing their studies, can open doors to a future job.
In-service training of teachers is carried out in many ways. Cantonal schools (for example, the Schools for Further Professional Training ["centres de perfectionnement"]) have the job of retraining primary and lower-level secondary school teachers. Universities (for example, Fribourg's "Institut für Deutsche Sprache" among others) offer improvement courses. Many teachers themselves organize training abroad. In Switzerland, the CDIP created the "Centre pour le perfectionnement des professeurs de l'enseignement secondaire (CPS)- "supérieur," as we should specify.
The CPS offers a variety of specialized courses, as well as international exchanges or partnerships among teachers (International Exchanges with Switzerland for Teachers, EIP.) In 1994-5, about a hundred courses were organized, and about a dozen of these were in foreign languages. A large number of these courses are taught by university professors, or by well-known educators. In this way, many people can be "seduced" (Ehrhard, EIP) into attending the courses, since participation is not required except in two cantons. Required retraining, like that available to primary and lower-level secondary school teachers, is lacking at the upper level in Switzerland. The courses offered by the CPS last between 3 days and 2 weeks. A required evaluation of the course takes place at the end of these courses, but the participants' progress is not evaluated. The language in which the courses are taught varies according to the speakers (national languages, English, Spanish). Many courses are open to foreign participants, who may obtain funding from the European Council.
Concerning international exchanges for teachers, a national correspondent is responsible for disseminating information, for "recruiting," and sometimes for pre-selecting the foreign teachers who are interested in an international exchange. Each semester, 300 requests for information are recorded, of which about 60 lead to an exchange. This interest is probably due to the variety of courses offered, which present diverse subjects as well as methodologies. The reputation of teaching in Switzerland, and its multilingualism might be other reasons. Thus, the number of exchanges between foreign and Swiss teachers virtually doubles every year. (17 Swiss teachers participated in either a short [2-week] or a long [1-trimester, 1-semester, or 1-year] international exchange in 1994-5.) The need for a "change of scenery" is usually given as a reason for participation. In addition, the exchange allows teachers to become acquainted with a new school system and new pedagogical models, as well as to improve their knowledge of didactics, their own discipline, and a foreign language.
The contribution of the foreign exchange partner is not to be underestimated. "Through the presence and work of a foreign teacher, the exchange brings the host school new pedagogical and cultural perspectives, as well as new information and practical knowledge. The students and colleagues, the school as a whole, and the extra-curricular environment are considerably enriched," (EIP, 1995). The exchange should thus lead to joint efforts at the level of the school, and should not be considered just as an individual experience. On this topic, Ehrhard specifies that foreign exchange teachers should not be regarded as "replacements," as they so often are, but rather as "supplements," as "resource persons" from whom one can learn. Even if the exchange itself is not materially burdensome (Swiss teachers make suitable housing available, or even contribute part of their salary, depending on the circumstances of the foreign exchange partner), it is important to find new ways to profit as much as possible from others' experiences.
The CPS tends to promote interest in teaching by immersion. In contradistinction to similar organizations abroad, the goal of the EIPs is not to offer an exchange programme only for language teachers. Even if linguistic limitations exist, the goal would be, for example, to permit an Italian history teacher, who might wish to expand his or her knowledge of international organizations in Geneva, to teach in that city in Italian. For the students, the foreign language would not be taught in the context of an artificial training situation, but in the context of their experience with the material.
There is no reason to differentiate between "second language" and "foreign language" in Switzerland. The training for teachers of the national languages is identical to the training for teachers of any other foreign language.
Many students in the arts study a foreign language in connection with other non-linguistic disciplines. In Switzerland, the faculty of arts includes numerous departments as varied as geography, ethnography and, in certain universities, psychology (Zurich) or journalism (Fribourg). Interdisciplinary studies are thus possible. Whether or not students are able to bring together these different fields is completely dependent on their own efforts.
For other faculties, not concerned with languages, offerings in foreign languages vary greatly. Fribourg is a bilingual university whose law and economics divisions offer, in addition to courses conducted in either German or French, the possibility of a bilingual bachelor's degree. In this case, half on one's courses must be taken in the other language. Students also have the option of taking only a few basics in the foreign language (in accordance with the principle of immersion). (Zweisprachigkeit Fribourg, 41) At the Federal School of Engineering in Lausane (EPFL), as well as in Zurich (ETH), courses are offered by visiting English-speaking professors in their native language. Understanding on the part of the students is thus assumed.
At the Hochschule Saint-Gall for economics, a foreign language is required. Most of the students choose English.
The law schools at the universities of Geneva and Lausanne offer courses on the interpretation of legal texts in German. At Lausanne, this course is required in the third year, and students are assessed in an exam. In Bern, courses on legal interpretation are offered in French and Italian to native speakers of these languages, but these courses are not attended by German-speaking students.
The faculty of business and commercial studies in Lausanne offers courses in business English during the first year (three hours), or during the second and third years (two hours). The School Leaving Certificate is the minimum level required for enrollment. The goal of instruction is described as follows: to be able to use English as a tool for assessing our modern world and for establishing communicative relationships with others" (Programme des cours 1994/5). A good command of written and spoken English is required for participation in the post-graduate training organized by the school, which leads to a Master's Degree in International Management (MIM).
In Switzerland, there are numerous post-graduate offerings in European studies. New chairs have been created, particularly after Switzerland's refusal to join the EES. For the most part, however, these offerings do not include foreign languages. In Geneva, as well, there are post-graduate programmes in European studies, connected with economics and sociology, with the law school, and with the faculty of arts. At Geneva, it is the European Institute(?) which "offers an advanced two-year interdisciplinary programme focusing on Europe understood as a cultural community, by means of its history, and in the perspective of its broader links with eastern European countries....The basic areas of study are history and geography of Europe, as well as European law, economics and literature," (Etudes européenes, Guide 2/94, 10-11). All the courses are conducted in French; visiting professors from Russia and the Ukraine receive help with diction and translation as well as with other subjects from the teaching assistant assigned to them. Students are nonetheless permitted to complete written assignments in another language, as long as the professor in question agrees.
In Basel, there is also a European Institute, connected both to the law school and the faculty of arts. A one-year post-graduate programme leads to a degree called "Master of Advanced European Studies," which focuses on law, economics and politics. A command of German, French and English is required for this programme. (Certificates attesting to one's knowledge of these three languages are required for registration.) Each course, and its corresponding exam, can use one of the three languages. We consider the foreign-language requirements of Basel's Institute to be exemplary, in that they correspond to the necessary conditions for language immersion.
All Swiss universities offer foreign-language courses intended, on the one hand, for students whose knowledge is insufficient for them to enroll in the programme of their choice, on the other hand for students who wish to improve their knowledge of a foreign language, most often for an exchange. We will take the two federal engineering schools as an example, even though the wide range of choices offered by the language centers in these two schools is unusual.
The language center of the EPFL in Lausanne offers courses during the semester as well as intensive courses (2-3 weeks, 40-60 hours) during vacations to registered students. Courses are offered in English (as well as technical English), German, French, Spanish, Italian, Swiss German (only during the semester) at all levels. The ETH, the EPFL's counterpart in Zurich, offers, in addition to the courses mentioned above, courses in Arabic, Chinese, Japanese and Russian. The courses in German as a foreign language are open only to students registered at the ETH. Intensive (not beginning) courses in German for students who have been accepted to the ETH are offered before the academic year begins. These two schools, as well as the HSG, offer intensive preparatory courses in language for Swiss and foreign studens who have an insufficient command of the language in which courses will be conducted. At the EPFL, for example, an intensive preparatory course is given in September-October, particularly for new students who are native speakers of German. There are also student exchanges starting in the third year, essentially for the research project required for the degree. The EPFL and the ETH organize these exchanges with European universities (thanks to Erasmus) as well as with a few universities in the US and Canada. In this context, the University of Basel offers courses in German as a foreign language for Erasmus host students.
In all areas of study, students are made aware of the possibilities for exchange programmes abroad or in Switzerland itself. These exchanges are highly recommended, but the linguistic difficulties to which they may give rise are to be resolved by the students themselves, who should request information from their university about courses offered in foreign languages.
We should add that most courses in the faculty of arts may be audited by students from other disciplines, as well as by non-students.
The School for Translators and Interpreters ("Ecole de traduction et d'interprétation," ETI) at the University of Geneva is, in Switzerland, the only university setting in which translators and interpreters are trained. Accredited private schools also offer this possibility for training, namely the "Dolmetscherschule Zürich" (DOZ), the "Dolmetscherschule Basel" (Dolba), and the "Handels- und Dolmetscherschule St. Gallen." A programme in literary translation is also being created at the University of Lausanne.
The requirements for admission to the ETI are passing the admissions exam in one's native language (the "active language") and in two foreign languages ("passive languages"). The time to degee is eight semesters, two of which (in the second year) are spend abroad in order to improve one's command of the two "passive languages." Erasmus programmes are on the list of agreements signed with foreign universities.
The subjects dealt with are translation and interpretation. For both professions, requirements include excellent knowledge of languages, detailed knowledge in several areas (law, economics and political science, etc.), as well as basic general knowledge.
The degree in translation requires a basis in three languages (one of which must be French). The languages may be chosen from among German, English, Arabic, Spanish, French, Italian and Russian. This degree, or another university degree with similar requirements, allows one to take the entrance exam for complementary studies as a conference interpreter. The complementary studies last two semesters for translators and one semester for interpreters. There are also post-graduate degrees in terminology and in computer-assisted translation.
As a comparison, the DOZ requires three years of study for the translator's diploma. One semester, also in the second year, must be spent in a country where the second language is spoken. the translator's diploma is based on a knowledge of three languages which can be chosen from among German, French, Italian, English and Spanish. This diploma is one of the conditions for admission to the programme for interpreters, which lasts three semesters and leads to a diploma in two or three languages. Erasmus programmes are also on the list of agreements signed with foreign universities. At both the ETI and the DOZ, the Erasmus programmes have a considerable impact on courses of study, particularly because they fellowships to facilitate student mobility.
It must be noted that there is still very little research on translation in Switzerland. One of the main goals of the "Centre de traduction littéraire" (CTL) in Lausanne is to promote the importance of this kind of research.
Some figures on opportunities in the field of translation: 58% of the graduates of the DOZ indicated, in the school's survey, that they were employed as translators; 27% were secretaries, often chosen because of their command of foreign languages, and 15% were teachers. 14% were working in media, about half of these as journalists, the other half as editors or proofreaders. 9% were involved in further training.
We indicated above that some non-university institutions were involved in training teachers and translators/interpreters. In addition, there are many language courses offered for adults. Still, we should differentiate training leading to a diploma from single courses for adults. The adult courses are not on the level of academic courses, and don't pretend to be. Public universities and many private schools offer courses to prepare for international language diplomas. Often, there can be a wide variety of languages offered; in addition to traditional language courses, there are courses in conversation, reading, or business terminology.
It is difficult to give an overview of foreign-language studies in the context of post-secondary programmes that do not focus on languages. Language courses are integrated into the programme when the level of instruction requires it, or when professional demands exist. We will limit ourselves to two areas, where the importance of foreign language use is well established, and where the command of foreign languages plays an important role: engineering and tourism schools.
Engineering schools include the second national language and English (or Italian) among the subjects taught. A civil or rural engineer must be able to work anywhere in Switzerland; therefore, knowledge of the national languages is a necessity. Foreign-language instruction emphasizes basic and technical vocabulary, as well as the most common basic structures of the language being studied. In certain departments, only one of these languages is taught, but at a higher level. This is true of English (above all technical English) in the faculties of electrical engineering and electronics.
The engineering school in Fribourg will serve as an example; it will illustrate the possibility of integrating the practice of a foreign language into the context of a specific discipline. Theoretical instruction and practical exercises are conducted in French. General and scientific subjects are taught in German. German-speaking students may express themselves in their own languages in all courses and exams.
In the field of tourism, courses in English and Spanish are offered, in addition to courses in the second national language. Either this national language or English (depending on the school) is taught in detail (form, correspondence, argumentation, written assignments, literature), while students must demonstrate a command of one other language or, often, of two, with an eye toward oral and written communication in fields related to tourism. English, German, Spanish, and sometimes Italian are taught in the first year and are tested in an exam. At the International Centre in Glion, a hotel management and tourism school that conducts its courses in French, certain courses are conducted in English starting the second year. Brush-up courses in English are offered there in the first year.
In certain schools, language immersion is a reality. Lüdi explains that, "sometimes, courses are conducted in another non-regional language that the students are presumed to know because it is the instructor's native language, ... or because the language is the only one common to all the participants (for instance, in-service training at Swissair taking place in English)." (Lüdi, Modèles, 364)
Both students and their employers agree that in-service training has become considerably more important in the past few years. (OFS, Etudes post-grades) The command or detailed study of one or several foreign languges are often mentioned in this context. "The Swiss Confederation is actively engaged in developing federal employees' knowledge of the national languages. Nevertheless, in reality, knowledge of the three official languages is not widespread. Thus, the Central Office for Federal Employees offers language courses in the context of its employee training." (Défi, 87) "It is a pleasure to note that, among courses offered by the federal employment office, are included not only the three official languages (as native or target languages) and English, but also the fourth national language, Romantsch." (ibid., 89) These courses are intended for employees of the Federal Ministry of Justice, the federal courts, the Confederation's general administrative offices, the Council of Federal Schools of Engineering, the railway and postal systems. The postal service requests that its managers spend a year in language training, in German-speaking Switzerland for speakers of Romance languages, and in French-speaking Switzerland for speakers of German. During this training, employees take intensive courses of two weeks each in the second national language, followed by periods of independent work (with work to be completed at home), which is then discussed, on seven different occasions, in the course of one day. An oral and a written exam are given at the end of these courses.
Banks offer courses in language improvement at all levels to all their employees. Several favor stays of 24 months in another linguistic region, or even transfers to such a region, in Switzerland or abroad. Large companies also offer in-service training and the possibility of exchanges, as well as educational stays in another lingiusitic region. "Comett" fellowships are awarded partly for language courses preceding training in a foreign company.
What is striking about the data presented in chapters 1-6 is their diversity, which excludes generalizations. The following chapters, which focus on what should be rather than what is, will move beyond the enumeration of examples.
Regional, national, continental, and even world languages, people's relation to their own and to other languages, their mono- or multi-lingualism, forms of intercultural communication in different areas and at different times, as well as the interaction of all these linguistic phenomena with social, psychic and cognitive phenomena like social harmony, the individual's well-being within groups, and people's perception of the world, are all fundamental questions that should give rise to ongoing discussions that are thoroughly integrated into programmes of language study. This discussion process involves crucial theoretical as well as empirical approaches. The creation of courses corresponding to the linguistic situation of diverse regions and populations still relies on chance and on the good will of individual instructors.
In order to survive in a changing and unpredictable professional environment, university graduates must learn how to learn, demonstrate flexibility, and be open to interdisciplinary approaches. For children and young people, education more and more often includes extra-curricular training, and life-long professional training has become a necessity. As a result, the role of education has changed (cf. 7.2). New kinds of jobs are now available, and recent graduates must conform to the new requirements in pursuing the appropriate training. On the other hand, these graduates are also capable of taking part in the creation of the new jobs. For foreign language departments to claim that their students will usually become teachers is a simplification, but one that, nonetheless, has the advantage of linking professional life to university studies. The disadvantage is that focusing on this one career prevents departments from considering the whole range of professions that are directly or indirectly related to languages. As a result, students are often unaware of professional options that might interest them.
Both research and teaching in the area of foreign languages have international repercussions. There is a wealth of experience, such as reading publications in a foreign language, interacting with foreign students, professors or researchers, and participating both actively and passively (through contact with visiting students or professors) in exchanges, to which people with personal (or institutional) linguistic barriers do not have access. Individuals' chances of finding a job are diminishing as learning and projects assume a more international scope; this tendency is, on the other hand, raising the level of education and research, causing them to be more democratic, since each individual contribution is subject to critique not only from one responsible professor, but also from an international consortium.
Here are some tendencies in language teaching, which we should identify as needs for initial and in-service training of teachers: autonomous learning, bilingual teaching, language awareness, integration of native and foreign languages, multiculturalism, interchangeable units of a programme of study, communicative methods, consideration of research on language acquisition. These pedagogical concepts are linked by their emphasis not on what is learned, the languages, but the students who do the learning, and how they acquire knowledge.
Foreign-language instructors should cooperate more with their colleagues in other fields, be willing to participate in exchanges, accept and promote diversity in the classroom (different levels, different ways of learning), and encourage autonomy; in short, they should be ready to catalyze the learning process. The material covered in class should not be limited to language, civilization and literature, but should also include learning strategies for the students. In the future, students will not learn languages; they will learn how to learn them. Students will come to see that languages are "necessary" because these languages are a part of the world around them.
Switzerland is a multi-cultural and multi-lingual society. This state of affairs does not result from the coexistence of several regions, each with its own language and culture. More and more situations now require openness to different languages and cultures, as well as a desire to communicate with others. Good will is, however, not always sufficient to overcome the numerous (psychological, linguistic and socio-cultural) barriers impeding communication. Some agreement is necessary on the ways in which communication will be handled (for example, using the "Swiss model;" 1.1). In this sense, Switzerland is a miniature model for Europe, which certainly contains greater linguistic and cultural variety, but which also has to agree on a model for interaction, since it functions according to the same principle of bringing together diverse elements. These facts constitute the framework as well as the goal--and, let us hope, the motivation--for all foreign-language instruction.
"In general, institutions of higher education should be more multi-lingual and make more of an effort than they have until now to promote understanding between linguistic groups in Switzerland [and elsewhere]. In the course of their university education, students often forget the languages that they have learned in secondary school." (Quadri, 71). This state of affairs is unfortunate in itself. (For the professional repercussions that result, see 7.3.2.)
Creating an opposition between languages and other areas of study, as we have also done in this report, is highly problematic. The over-simplified and dangerous way of thinking that divides cultural and literary (humanistic and abstract) knowledge from scientific and technical (concrete) knowledge is reproduced. Such a polarity, which is inherent not only in our society but also in our educational system, is completely unjustified. Language instruction should, in effect, be able to bring together these two poles. In whatever area of study one chooses, communication and multi-lingualism are, in fact, of the utmost importance.
We do not in any way wish to deny the need for detailed and scientific study of languages in themselves. This form of specialization can exist in conjuction with basic instruction in foreign languages, whose effect would be to enable students to communicate with a greater number of people, and to make them aware of the multi-cultural world around them. With this new emphasis, students might find it "natural" to continue to study the foreign languages to which they have been introduced, focusing on those that are useful for their area of specialization, instead of forgetting, as quickly as possible, the languages that they have been taught in compulsory and seconday schooling. With a view toward this goal, we should point out the risks of a purely communicative method in language teaching. This method is intended to develop, in the beginning, students' ability to speak, understand and get along in everyday situations; however, foreign-language instruction should move rapidly beyond this stage and demonstrate the connections with other areas. In reality, students' needs are not so simple; nor are they limited to everyday language use. In light of these needs, either receptive abilities (understanding, reading) or productive abilities (speaking, writing) should be emphasized. The teaching of foreign languages outside a specific context is meaningless and, consequently, does not motivate students.
Finally, the question arises as to whether universities are as multi-lingual as they should be if they intend to catalogue, assimilate, discuss and advance research on a regional and international level.
In areas not specifically related to languages, the academic community transcends all national, cultural and linguistic boundaries. Students in foreign languages keep up with events by reading journals published in the languages that they study, while, in other areas, the ability to gather information and to communicate is most often dependent upon a knowledge of several languages. People who are able to communicate their knowledge and deal with scientific terminology in several languages have a better chance of being hired, above all because businesses and markets are becoming more and more international in scope. People who combine technical with communicative ability are more and more in demand.
Only people who know the specialized terminology of their discipline in several languages will be able to function in Switzerland and Europe. The few inconveniences occasioned by the participation of people or institutions from different linguistic regions should not prevent exchanges and on-site collaboration from taking place. On the contrary, people should take advantage of the opportunity to improve their language skills (even if these skills are only passive), while participating in a discussion about a specific field of scientific research. This attitude implies that one shouldn't decide too hastily on the use of a lingua franca.
In the present day, as we have seen, most people have some dealings with foreign languages. This does not, however, imply that translators and interpreters have become superfluous. On the contrary, their work is expected to be precise and exact, which implies that they will have a perfect command of languages and their nuances as well as a detailed knowledge of the technical or other subjects under discussion. In compulsory and secondary schooling, foreign language instruction tends to privilege oral and communicative skills. Because of this tendency, it is becoming more and more necessary to hire professionals, such as translators and interpreters, to handle specialized forms of communication, both written and oral, in official contexts. For the same reason, our present (and future) educational system is becoming more and more unlikely to provide translators and interpreters with a secure basis in a language, which might lay the groundwork for their linguistic knowledge. Consequently, a programme of post-secondary study should be developed which emphasizes writing and precision in oral expression, while taking into account the cognitive processes that guide the activities of translating and interpreting.
In terms of their skills and the kind of work they do, professional translators and interpreters should be able to set themselves apart from people who have other kinds of language skills, but who have not mastered the specific techniques required by these professions (e.g. people who are bilingual). Their professional future as translators and interpreters depends on maintaining and emphasizing these differences, above all since the number of bilingual people is growing. Additionally, the skills of translators should be clearly differentiated from those of interpreters, and a nuanced and innovative training programme should be developed, which takes into account new and varied professional opportunities such as writing specialized texts, adapting verbal or written texts to a specific audience, and improving the style of non-literary writings. It is highly important not only to recognize that translating and interpreting should be accomplished by professionals, but also to finance their training and provide them with the necessary time in which to complete it.
The very specific demands that the training of translators and interpreters must meet require sustained international cooperation. Educational stays in a different linguistic regions(?) can only be profitable if the schools of translation and interpretation maintain a uniform level, and if their common language is the native language of most of the students. It is also necessary to coordinate degree requirements. This presupposes that the translator's academic qualifications be officially recognized, which is not the case in Switzerland.
Non-university institutions have the potential to bring innovations to teaching methodology--in particular in the private sector, which uses this very point as an argument in advertising--and this potential should be used. Exchanges between universities and other institutions of higher education should become more frequent, and each side should learn from the other. The development of new ideas about teaching methodology is hindered because these exchanges between institutions are a taboo subject. Legitimate concerns about the protection of intellectual property should be taken into account in this discussion. In addition, it is important to ensure that instructors from all the institutions that make up the educational system receive similar initial training, have the same access to in-service training, and are paid a comparable salary. The least expensive solution in a given economic situation should not necessarily be acted upon, or considered by officials to be the best and only solution. Tasks must be clearly divided among different institutions.
The variety of public and private non-university institutions of higher education should be retained. On the other hand, the existence of many different diplomas should be reconsidered. Just as there are language diplomas that are nationally recognized, professional diplomas should be guaranteed recognition thoughout Switzerland and Europe. This standardization would allow students at various schools to know clearly and in advance how valuable their training would be on the labour market.
The courses of study leading to diplomas in languages should remain varied, but the degrees themselves should be standardized, and their requirements should be established in international discussions among experts.
What has already been said about the universities is equally valid here: if it is possible, during post-secondary education, to un-learn the foreign languages learned in compulsory and secondary schooling, then there must be an error in the system. Relating foreign languages to other subjects is a way to ensure that students will retain and improve their language skills. It is not productive to treat foreign languages apart from other areas of study, and vice versa. Students in specialized institutions of higher education do not always possess a sufficient command of foreign languages at the beginning of their studies, since the School Leaving Certificate is not a requirement for admission. In such institutions, foreign-language instruction should be related to the student's chosen field of study from the start, so that language immersion can take place there as well as at the universities.
In Switzerland and in the world, there is almost no profession that does not require some exposure to foreign languages. If a knowledge of foreign languages is not always crucial, it is definitely an advantage. Schools, officials, students, and future employees or employers should be aware of the importance of foreign languages.
People who actively use foreign languages travel and interact with others, while people who are active in other domains do not travel. It is obvious that this thesis is not valid. What is lacking is the systematic possibility for drawing practical conclusions from it. Because of Switzerland's participation in the Erasmus program, there is the possibility of making these conclusions more concrete. Such programs should not be allowed to disappear; on the contrary, they should be allowed to develop--in the interest of Switzerland and, we hope, of Europe.
It is the university's responsibility to advance and coordinate research in the area of teaching methodology. It is the responsibility of the schools that train teachers to try to accomplish the goals that have been worked out, and to communicate the research results to teachers, for example by bringing them into contact with specialists in teaching methodology, and by giving them information about training programmes. It is the schools' responsibility to allow teachers sufficient time to pursue training. Exchanges among teachers are a kind of training that has been proven to be successful. These exchanges should be integrated into bilingual teaching programs. In general, the training of teachers should allow them to develop a multicultural awareness.
A one-year stay abroad should be required and financed for teachers' initial training. Exchanges and in-service training should be instituted and financed.
European programs can help strengthen exchange programs and in-service training, so that people who are enthusiastic about participating in such programs won't be prevented from doing so for financial reasons.
In general, it is not enough to add foreign-language courses at the post-secondary level without integrating them into the programme of study. Conceived within a broader European context, multilingualism must be both well thought out and well adapted to the programme. It must allow students and specialists from different countries to establish contact, and to create links between their way of thinking and their area of specialization. (For example, students in nuclear physics could be encouraged to learn to understand and read Russian and English.)
The traditional links between the disciplines of languages, linguistics and literature should be expanded to include other areas of study. We need to think about the connections between disciplines and create a teaching methodology--if possible, a multilingual one--that is specific to the given area of study. Technical languages studied in specialized disciplines (such as law, economics, philology) and general languages can be thought of as linked in a set of tensions and complex relationships. Just as language and culture are connected, so the technical terminlogy of a specific discipline is linked to its international linguistic and cultural contexts.
The concept of the monolingual expert should be abandoned once and for all, and be replaced by the European specialist (lawyer, engineer, philologist, etc.), since knowledge, areas of specialization, and culture are no longer homogeneous. Institutions of higher education should develop courses that introduce students to interdisciplinary thinking (cf. 4.1.).
Research that has been conducted at one institution should be made public so that others can benefit from it. Chapters 2 and 4 of this report show ways in which the Swiss educational system is becoming more open to foreign languages and to Europe as a whole (i.e. bilingual university degrees, schools and institutions of higher education guaranteeing the principle of freedom to use one's own language, courses conducted in another language by a visiting professor, etc.). Language immersion, often mentioned in this report, is a solution that is also envisioned by a team of experts commissioned by the Federal Department of the Interior: "In order to give students a concrete multilingual approach,...we could propose to offer regularly a required course in a language other than the language of instruction. This proposal could easily be implemented by establishing exchanges between teachers, young ones particularly....Closer links and collaboration between (Swiss) institutions of higher education would be enough to achieve this goal," concludes the team of experts. (Quadri, 286) Language immersion can be achieved fairly easily, as long as the basics of foreign languages continue to be taught in secondary school, and as long as immersion is implemented according to a plan, not at random.
There would certainly be a danger in wishing to apply these concrete examples on a larger scale, without modifying the assumptions or rethinking both results and possible consequences. People who are in favor of diversity in Switzerland and Europe will certainly avoid taking these examples as an invitation to standardize. Universities and other institutions of higher education should keep their distinctive characteristics; but, at the same time, they should communicate with each other, be aware of what the others offer, and be able to learn and progress from contact with others. These remarks are valid for all levels of education, and also in specific areas of specialization. According to a survey of recent university graduates (Diem), students in the arts would like to have more consistent advice on the direction of their studies, a clearer plan of study (106), and greater participation in university research projects (107). Generally speaking, students in the arts are, in retrospect, more likely to judge their years at the university harshly. Diem establishes a link between this tendency to judge harshly and the fact that, for graduates in the arts, "there is no pre-established professional opportunity, other than teaching." (116-117) In order to diminish these criticisms, universities should be involved in discussions about the role of languages in society, particularly in the professions, and about the role of the university, particularly the role that it could play in defining or creating new professional opportunities for graduates in foreign languages.
Exchanges and cooperation between different universities should be retained and allowed to develop. Scholarships should allow all students the opportunity to visit other universities, in Switzerland and abroad, and university regulations should ensure that the work which they do at these other schools is recognized by their home university. Under these circumstances, students' mobility and autonomy will increase (which is already partly the case in Switzerland). University regulations should be adapted to the demands of interdisciplinary studies and of bi- or multilingualism. It is a fact that a knowledge of foreign languages is a necessity in Switzerland and Europe. In support of this idea, students should be made to worry more about their command of foreign languages (and not only of English, as is often the case). Students' skills in foreign languages could be evaluated and graded for all disciplines.
The fundamental changes that are required, as presented in section 7, can not be implemented without financing in-service training.
The European Community should provide the necessary funding for exchanges, and for programmes that are shared by different universities and by different countries. The European Community should also make sure that the exchanges and programmes have equivalent status. The international coordination of such projects at the post-secondary level is very desirable.
The team of experts commissioned by the Federal Department of the Interior suggests integrating multicultural education into professional training (Quadri, 248). This suggestion could lead to a new conception of both vocational education and professional life. Ideally, courses on languages and cultures could be brought into all areas of professional training, with the provision that the courses should be directly linked to the future profession. Additionally, companies that wish to arouse their employees' interest in linguistic and cultural diversity, and that would like to encourage their employees to participate in training programmes in different linguistic regions, should expand their current course offerings.
The creation of specialized cantonal institutions of higher education (HES), and the transformation and merging of existing schools into HESs should not bring about a lowering of intellectual standards, above all at a time when funding is uncertain and there is considerable political pressure to reduce the time to degree.
Many non-university institutions are connected with the Erasmus program. Their participation should be maintained and extended beyond the scope of exchange programs, particularly through permanent collaboration between institutions from different countries, as envisioned by the Socrates project. An important question for discussion is how to evaluate the work done in the context of such a collaboration and how to apply the results obtained.
To return to the initial focus of this report, the linguistic situation in Switzerland, we may conclude that, "Switzerland may be better able to maintain its linguistic diversity by creating close ties with Europe than by existing in 'splendid isolation.' A systematic cooperation with Europe would doubtless raise the status of French and Italian. The Romantsch-speaking inhabitants could develop survival strategies through contact and exchanges with other European minority language groups, who are becoming more conscious of their heritage. Opportunities for collaboration thus extend beyond the national boundaries. This collaboration could have a favorable impact on Romantsch-speakers' relationship with Switzerland's other linguistic groups. From a linguistic and cultural perspective, Europe's goal of unifying diverse groups is reflected in the "Swiss model," where the four languages and cultures form a nation, while preserving their specificity." (221) In order for the "Swiss model" to become the "European model," it should be put into practice and discussed more seriously in Switzerland itself.
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