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SIGMA Scientific Committee on Languages |
Beatrice Sandberg
German Department, University of Bergen
N-5007 Bergen, Norway
There are two official languages in Norway today, bokmål and nynorsk, which are the standard written languages. In addition, there are numerous dialects and sociolects. In nine municipalities (kommuner) in the north of Norway Sami is used as an additional administrative language, supplementing bokmål and nynorsk. Finally, various languages are spoken among different minority groups. There is a Finnish-speaking minority in the north of Norway, and numerous languages are represented among the immigrants who have arrived during the last thirty years.
Each municipality decides whether bokmål or nynorsk has the status of municipal administrative language, or whether the municipal administration should be considered linguistically neutral.
Public administration is neutral as regards language policy. Emphasis is put on promoting a balance in the use of the two languages, and all official forms and regulations, as well as personal documents such as passports and drivers licenses, are made available in both languages. All public employees have to master both. Brochures and pamphlets published by the public administration are presented partly in bokmål, partly in nynorsk or in both languages. It is a general rule that neither of the two languages should account for less than 25% of all information material published by the public administration within a certain period of time.
The municipality decides the language of instruction for the first six years in the Norwegian school system (barneskole). (Norwegian children start school at age 7, sometimes 6.) In cases of doubt a vote in the school district may decide the language of instruction. Parents can demand separate classes for groups of at least ten pupils in the "other" language. From the 7th form (7th - 9th form in the Norwegian school system is called ungdomsskole) pupils may decide which of the languages they wish to use, and from the 8th form the study of both languages constitutes an important and obligatory part of the curriculum. Consequently, all books and educational materials have to be made available in both languages. In universities and other institutions of higher education, bokmål and nynorsk are considered equal. The general rule that none of the two languages should account for less than 25% of all information material published within a certain period of time also applies to the universities. Each student decides which language he/she wants to use, which means that the texts of all written examinations have to be made available in both languages.
The fact that both languages are taught as national languages leads to a recurring controversy about the necessity of giving the minor Norwegian language, nynorsk, so much space in the language teaching system, at the expense of an additional foreign language.
The first foreign language (called A-language) is English and is an obligatory subject from the 4th form (approx. age 10) (to be introduced in the 3rd form in the near future) through to the first or second year of gymnas (10th - 12th form in the Norwegian school system). Other languages are optional in the 8th and 9th form, German and French being the most common ones, but Finnish, Spanish and Russian are also offered at some schools. The number of optional languages varies from school to school and from region to region. The government plans to introduce a second obligatory foreign language from 1997 and the choice will be between German and French (Russian or Finnish in some northern parts of the country).
The second foreign language is considered a B-language if the pupil studies it for two years in ungdomsskole and then continues with it in gymnas. However, if the pupil starts studying a second language in gymnas, he/she will reach a comparatively lower level of competence. Accordingly, it will be considered a C-language.
Higher education is offered by the four universities (Bergen, Oslo, Tromsø, Trondheim), six university colleges, twenty-six regional colleges, and some private institutions. Until recently, Norway had about 130 regional colleges, but these have been reorganised as twenty-six regional colleges over the last two years. The two main aims of this reorganisation have been to cut down administrative costs and to create larger and therefore more competitive institutions. The original intentions were to create an alternative system to the universities at the undergraduate level as well as to encourage regional development. But the new institutions thus created soon became more ambitious than originally intended. They are increasingly engaging in research and are also developing programmes at the Master's level in specialised areas. This is still a matter of some controversy since the investments needed to raise all regional colleges to a level where they would be internationally competitive would mean a draining of resources from the traditional universities.
The number of students has increased by more than 50% over the last ten years (165 000 students in 1995), the number of students studying at Master's level has doubled over the last six years, and doctoral degrees have increased accordingly thanks to the efforts made to improve the student flow at top levels.
Co-operation between universities and the higher education sector in general is given high priority. The governmental decision to establish a "Norwegian Network" is aimed at linking together all Norwegian institutions of higher education. The universities are the cornerstones in this network and are given the responsibility of developing a national strategy for doctoral education.
All institutions have a wide range of academic programmes. Professional degrees, such as in medicine, law, engineering or business administration, are based on tightly structured four- to six-year programmes, while degrees in the sciences, social sciences and humanities are based on more loosely-structured programmes that give the students the opportunity to compose a more individually-oriented university degree. Students may transfer credit for courses and degrees completed at one institution to others, be they universities, regional colleges, university colleges or private institutions in Norway or abroad.
The credit (vekttall) system is based on 10 vekttall (i.e. 30 ECTS credits) as the equivalent of one term (semester) of full-time study. The first university degree, called the cand.mag. degree, is a four-year degree consisting of 80 vekttall (240 ECTS credits).
At the universities, an obligatory requirement for the cand. mag. degree, usually placed in the first semester, is a 5 vekttall/15 ECTS credit course in the history of philosophy, logic and theory of science (Examen Philosophicum). Latin is no longer taught in most Norwegian schools and has been removed from the obligatory requirement. Courses are organised in subjects (Mathematics, German, Sociology etc.), mainly in units of 20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits (called grunnfag) or 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits (called mellomfag [also grunnfag 20 + mellomfagstillegg 10]). In some instances a subject may be offered in a unit of only 10 vekttall/30 ECTS credits (delfag) or in a unit of 40 vekttall/120 ECTS credits (storfag). In the social sciences and the humanities all students study one subject at a time, while in the natural sciences courses in different subjects may be taken in the same semester. Student groups in the various subjects may thus be very heterogeneous from the point of view of goals and experiences.
In order to qualify for the cand.mag degree, a student must have at least 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits in one subject and at least 20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits in a second subject. For the many who wish certification as teachers, a 10 vekttall/30 ECTS credits course in didactics and pedagogics may be included as part of a cand.mag. degree, while a second such course is a required addition to the degree. For students working towards such certification, a degree may include 10 vekttall/30 ECTS credits of introductory courses (including Examen Philosophicum), as well as 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits subjects, and the 10 vekttall/30 ECTS credits course in didactics. Other students will normally have one 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits subject and two 20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits subjects.
The second degree is called cand.philol. in the humanities; cand.polit. in the social sciences, and cand.scient. in the natural sciences. For this degree there are two-year programmes (= 120 ECTS credits) in a wide range of subjects, all based on the student having acquired the equivalent of 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits in the same subject for the first degree, and all including a dissertation requirement. Courses may comprise both 10 vekttall/30 ECTS credits and 20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits, while the credits for the dissertation may range from 20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits to 30 vekttall/90 ECTS credits.
The universities have doctoral programmes based both on second degrees and on their professional degrees. In theory, a doctoral programme consists of three years of full-time work. However, four (or five) years are more commonly needed. Most of these programmes now include obligatory training in theory and methodology concluded with the presentation of a paper. When a thesis has been accepted it must be defended at a public oral examination (disputas) and the candidate must also hold one or two lectures to be evaluated by the three appointed examiners. There is also a dr. philos. degree for those not following an organised doctoral programme.
The Norwegian gymnas offers a three-year education which, according to its new structure (Reform 94), is divided into 13 sections, each offering a set of obligatory and optional courses that may be combined in various ways. In order to be admitted to university, the pupils have to choose one of the three programmes that prepare for admission. They all involve an obligatory course in English with 5 lessons per week during the first year. For the next two years one may choose between an English course of 5 lessons per week and a less comprehensive programme of at least 3 lessons per week. The obligatory English language programme of 5 lessons per week in the first year leads to the English A-language competence that is required for admission to the English degrees at the universities and regional colleges.
A second language is mandatory in gymnas. Without two years of previous language training (other than English) from ungdomsskole, the pupil will reach a C-language competence level. If the student has already completed a two-year second language programme in ungdomsskole and continues studying the same language in gymnas, he/she will acquire a B-language competence level. Originally, both the C- and B-languages represented a sufficient level of competence to be admitted to the language degrees of the universities (except the English degree) without a preparatory course. Today, students are strongly recommended by the language departments of the universities not to begin a language degree without B-language competence, and even this standard is often no longer considered to be satisfactory and special courses have been introduced to improve the students' competence.
The B-language programmes represent a work-load of 4 lessons per week in the first and second years of gymnas. The C-level programmes represent a work-load of 4 lessons per week in the first, second and third years of gymnas.
International baccalaureate is offered at five gymnas in Bergen, Oslo, Stavanger and Trondheim). The curriculum is taught in English and exceeds the corresponding curriculum of the ordinary gymnas.
The language/literature programmes may be followed on several levels and in different combinations (as mentioned in 1.2.). The most common programmes are those leading to the first and second degrees. Small language departments decide whether they have the capacity and the resources to provide instruction at all levels.
Scandinavian Languages and Literature, which also includes elements of Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, is the most popular focus for language studies, closely followed by English. Much effort has been made to encourage French as a second foreign language and it has increased a lot, but German is still more popular than French. Spanish is very popular on the lower levels, while Italian is still a rather small subject. Dutch, Portuguese and modern Greek are only taught at the University of Oslo, while the universities of Bergen, Oslo and Tromsø have specialised courses in Russian and Slavic/Baltic languages.
Most departments combine the traditional elements of linguistics, literature and culture, sometimes also historical linguistics or philology (which is an ordinary element in the study of Norwegian). Teaching of Norwegian as a foreign language has become a popular programme for native and foreign students who wish to study the language from a contrastive perspective with special acquisition of Norwegian as a second language, and who wish to work as teachers of Norwegian for foreign pupils/students. The curriculum is divided in several components as: Topics related to general as well as Norwegian linguistics; language teaching and language acquisition; the social environment and aspects of modern Norwegian literature.
There has been a development over the last ten years to reduce the historical dimension in all disciplines to the advantage of the modern elements as syntax, sociolinguistics, modern literature and theories and emphasis on oral skills. The lower level programmes no longer cover the period from the Middle Ages to the present, most concentrate on the period from the 17th century onwards. Aiming at a more interdisciplinary approach, the focus is put on the links between the disciplines, and culture is seen as a good possibility to mediate between the subjects. In that way the area has widened, despite a reduction on the diachronic line. At the same time, national borders are no longer so important and the Francophone areas play a similar role in the curriculum as the German-writing and the Anglophone areas. Spanish also no longer means only Spain. Film and multi-media activities are integrated in the studies and all elements that serve a better understanding of culture are promoted.
The content and objectives of the language degrees offered at an undergraduate level are defined by the departments themselves. Accordingly, content and objectives vary from department to department and between the universities. In order to secure a general framework, to maintain a sufficient level and to keep in touch with the developments of the various degree programmes, national councils (nasjonale fagråd) were established within each subject (English, German, etc.). They consist of representatives from all departments at the universities, regional colleges and university colleges, dealing with the same subject. In this way, equal quality between the universities and regional colleges is secured and mobility made possible. Students can easily get their examination passes from various institutions incorporated into a university degree. For the same reason examiners from external institutions are appointed to participate in the examination work.
There are some general features regarding the language degree programmes of the universities:
i) The language students are expected to have completed an introductory course in phonetics and linguistics before they start with grunnfag. This course constitutes a significant component of basic knowledge the students are expected to have acquired before starting the language degree programmes. The course is mandatory and no cand.mag. degree will be awarded before this examination has been passed.
ii) For those students who want to study a language but who do not have a sufficient level of proficiency from gymnas, as is the case in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian etc., the universities offer a one-semester preparatory course. The course provides the student with an adequate competence to follow grunnfag. It does not, however, offer any credit in the attainment of the cand.mag. degree. As regards French, it is usual to study grunnfag over three semesters (instead of two), and in German most universities have introduced a diagnostic test, followed by a four- to six-week intensive preparatory course to help students to attain a reasonable level before commencing their studies.
iii) The grunnfag (20 vekttall/60 ECTS credits) usually comprises linguistics and/or philology, literature and civilisation/culture. The most common teaching methods are lectures, seminars, work in small groups and colloquia (study group run by a small number of students co-operating in solving problems or discussing a topic or a text), and essay work/semester assignments. Lectures are usually held in the language in question, which makes it easy for exchange students to follow the tuition. Evaluation includes written as well as oral examinations.
iv) The mellomfag (30 [20+10] vekttall/90 ECTS credits) builds on the grunnfag programme and provides a more profound study of language and literature. It often offers a set of optional courses which gives the students the possibility to specialise according to personal interests. In addition to written and oral examinations, evaluation often includes essay work/term paper.
v) The storfag (40 vekttall/120 ECTS credits) is rarely offered, but when it is, it is based on the mellomfag programme. It represents a work-load of four semesters, including the mellomfag examination.
The language programmes of the regional colleges and the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration are two-semester programmes that in structure correspond to the grunnfag programmes of the universities. The language programmes of the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration differ from the ordinary grunnfag programmes of the universities by putting more emphasis on the study of civilisation and administrative/economic terminology and less on literature. Some regional colleges also offer two-year language programmes.
Examinations usually include both written and oral exams. Each exam is evaluated by a committee of three members, two from the department and one external. This system is very expensive, but it represents an important contribution to continuing co-operation and co-ordination between the institutions.
The increasing number of exchange students has made obvious the great variety of structures, units and marking systems within language studies in the different countries. In order to evaluate the courses and the performances more accurately, the marking system has been adapted to the EU-standards, and modularisation has been introduced - not without protest - to open for smaller units in the examination system.
Scandinavian Area Studies (SAS) is a programme offered in English by two faculties (the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Social Sciences), especially designed for foreign students at the University of Bergen. The course aims at the acquisition of practical communicative proficiency and a basic theoretical insight into the Norwegian language. This includes systematic and structural features of present-day language, the historical evolution of Norwegian as an independent language in the past, as well as aspects of pragmatic and sociolinguistic variation. Among other subjects, Norwegian Language and Scandinavian Literature are offered, each amounting to 15 ECTS credits.
Applied language programmes are offered at the universities of Trondheim and Oslo. The Department of Applied Linguistics at the University of Trondheim manages the national network for applied language research.
The applied language programmes at the University of Trondheim emphasise the study of the linguistic development of children, where focus is put on linguistic deviations, the teaching of Norwegian to immigrants, and how children learn to write in barneskole. The application of new technology also represents an important component of the programmes offered by the department of Applied Linguistics at the University of Trondheim.
At the University of Oslo, the grunnfag programme in linguistic deviations emphasises the linguistic development of children, while the grunnfag programme in translation is considered as an important component of a translator's education.
At the University of Bergen, linguists are e.g. co-operating with colleagues from The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration on a project on machine-translation. The Department of Scandinavian Languages and Literature has developed a centre for language and terminology, The Norwegian Term Bank (NT). The NT is engaged in theoretical research and carries out commissioned research within the fields of terminology, lexicography and documentation, e.g. in oil and gas technology, environmental standardisation and thesaurus building. The Norwegian Computing Centre for the Humanities (NCCH) at the University of Bergen emphasises the development of corpora for linguistic studies and the development of software for advanced text processing and language analysis. The Ibsen-Concordance is one of the centre's projects, the ICAME (Int. Computer Archive of Modern English) another, and there are Parallel-corpora projects underway in English-Norwegian, French-Norwegian and German-Norwegian. At the Wittgenstein Archives, the Nachlass of Ludwig Wittgenstein is being transcribed into a machine-readable form, a project that has attracted much attention and many researchers from all over the world.
The University of Trondheim offers applied language programmes at all levels. The University of Oslo offers two grunnfag programmes: one that focuses on linguistic deviations, and one in translation. Length and assessment as in section 2.1.3.
There are many co-operation programmes based on individual contacts which have now been extended to wider projects between institutions in the United States and in European countries. The contacts being established through the EU-programmes are promising and will provide new co-operation especially in the area of text, educational multi-media programmes, and multi-media databases.
The programmes on this level lead to the cand.philol. and dr.art. degrees. The cand. philol. is an advanced university degree which consists of the cand.mag. degree and a hovedfag (two years of study beyond cand.mag.) programme at a department where the student has already completed a mellomfag programme. Some departments have introduced entry restrictions to hovedfag level (i.e. entry dependent on high marks in mellomfag). The programme normally corresponds to four semesters of full-time studies (120 ECTS credits) and usually includes common and specific curriculum requirements and the writing of a main dissertation. The candidates choose individually the topic of the dissertation or they are invited to join a project. In both cases they work under the supervision of a personal advisor. The hovedfag programme is aimed at extending the candidate's academic ability in the field both for teaching and professional purposes and constitutes the basis for advanced research training.
Some universities are also offering Master's degrees in languages. These degrees are specially designed for students from Eastern European and Third World countries.
The doctoral programmes lead to the dr.art degree. Admission is based on the cand.philol. degree or an equivalent degree with very good results and a thoroughly planned project for the doctoral thesis. The programmes include specialised departmental course work and a thesis which has to be defended at a public oral examination.
The main postgraduate programmes have been revised thoroughly during the last few years in order to adapt to the new needs e.g. by strengthening the development of research activities with a view to the doctoral programme (more theory and methods), and by adjusting the content according to the objectives.
Half of a doctoral student's time is spent on work for the thesis and the student may choose more freely than previously what particular areas of specialisation he/she is interested in. A specialisation is normal in either literature or linguistics and further selections are made within these fields. As everywhere in society, we produce more specialists than generalists nowadays.
Several international Master's degree programmes, taught in English and covering two years of study, have been introduced especially for students from abroad (M.phil/M.Sc.) English, German and Spanish are the languages offered as Master's programmes at the University of Bergen.
The main structure of the new Ph.D. programmes is agreed upon by all universities on the basis of the so called National Faculties Councils (Nasjonale fakultetsmrter) and a scientific committee, consisting of the research leaders from all institutions organising doctoral programmes.
The Master's programmes are based on one year of course work (60 ECTS) and one year of thesis work under supervision.
The PhD programmes have been reorganised in order to obtain a stronger structure, more alike the American graduate schools, which should enable the candidates to finish their studies within a four-year time span (= three years full-time work).
Because of the newly introduced structure and because of the fact that there have been no organised exchanges of students at doctoral level in the EU programmes Norway has been involved in so far, there cannot yet be talk of any "impact" of Community programmes.
However, due to the fact that there are now an increasing number of students from developing countries and from Eastern Europe, several international Master's degree programmes have been established. They are taught in English and cover two years of study e.g. in English, German, French and Spanish. ERASMUS and/or LINGUA students may on application follow one or more of the courses offered in the Master's programmes, but cannot as exchange students receive the M.Phil. degree.
An increasing number of cand.philol. students are now spending time abroad, thanks to the opportunities provided by an ERASMUS grant. To make exchanges as successful as possible supervisors will have to choose the environments still more carefully in order to maximise the effect on a student's studies through time spent abroad. Students sometimes feel that they lose precious time abroad, taking marginal subjects which are not directly relevant to their curriculum at home.
Most language students get jobs in primary and secondary schools or in the traditional areas such as newspapers, libraries, publishing houses, ministries, travel agencies, guiding businesses and industrial companies, offices etc. During the last fifteen years enquiries have been made to see how successful (in terms of jobs) the education from different faculties has proved to be. The arts faculties get good results, i.e. a high percentage of candidates obtaining jobs because of their great flexibility and suitability to different jobs, in contrast to the much more specialised candidates from other faculties.
Teacher training takes place at the universities, the regional colleges, the university colleges and in private institutions. The training of language teachers is usually the task of the universities, where the cand.mag degree supplemented with a one-year formal pedagogic education constitutes the formal teacher training. This means that there is no difference between the grunnfag language studies and the language part of teacher training. The cand.mag. candidate teaches those subjects that correspond to his/her combination of subjects. As a minimum, the documentation of the grunnfag exam (or a corresponding examination from a regional college, a university college or a private institution of higher education) in the language in question is required for teaching at an ungdomsskole and gymnas or at a corresponding level. The additional one-year formal pedagogic education is mandatory and can be obtained from the universities.
The four-year teacher training of the regional colleges does not involve mandatory language courses. However, the elective component of the curriculum is three semesters where the students may choose language courses which provide them with the necessary competence required for teaching the language on a level corresponding to ungdomsskole and gymnas. The number of languages offered varies from college to college and from region to region.
University and college teachers are required to document, as a minimum, a hovedfag exam in the language in question. Formal pedagogic education is not necessary, but is considered an advantage.
There are no institutions of higher education that exclusively train language teachers. The grunnfag exam can be obtained from all universities, and several regional colleges offer corresponding one-year language programmes. In addition, the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration in Bergen offers one-year language programmes in English, French and German, followed by an examination corresponding to the grunnfag exam. These programmes enable the candidate (provided that he/she has the formal pedagogic training, see 1.2) to teach English, French or German at gymnas and corresponding levels.
As mentioned before, the content of the grunnfag programmes varies from institution to institution. It is, however, a general feature that the various programmes focus on language, literature and civilisation and not on the provision of pedagogic training. Consequently, the language programmes constitute a necessary but not complete part of the training of language teachers.
The universities require a certain level of knowledge in a particular language before the student is admitted to study that language. Usually, it is enough to have a B- or C-language competence from gymnas in order to be admitted to the corresponding grunnfag programmes at university (the English grunnfag programme requires A-language competence). For those who do not have the necessary competence for direct admission, the universities often offer preparatory courses (see 2.2.1).
The structure of the programmes for language teacher students is identical to that for language students described in Section 2.1.2.
Language students in Norway have been able to participate in a number of exchange programmes since 1993. These have been made possible through ERASMUS and involve an extensive set of ICP-network programmes between the different institutions. There are also bilateral co-operation programmes between the Norwegian universities and foreign institutions of higher education. Most programmes are not exclusively for language students. However, as language students are strongly encouraged to stay for a period in a country where their language of study is spoken, many language students benefit from the practical and financial assistance that these programmes offer.
The LINGUA programme was introduced just a few months ago in January 1995. Consequently, it is not yet possible to evaluate the impact it will have on the language/literature programmes in Norway.
The Norwegian universities have national agreements with the University in Caen (France), the University of York (UK) and the Christian Albrechts University in Kiel (Germany), funded directly by the Ministry of Church, Education and Research. All three universities offer specially designed language courses for the language/literature students of Norwegian universities. The Office Franco-Norvégien d'Echanges et de Coopération at the University of Caen offers a ten-week French language course every semester, as well as a two-week intensive course specially designed for students preparing for oral examinations.
The Christian Albrechts University in Kiel offers a four-week course in German every semester, for students on the grunnfag programmes in German language/literature at all four Norwegian universities. A similar course in English is organised by the Norwegian Study Centre in York, which is run by the Norwegian universities, regional colleges and university colleges in co-operation with the University of York. A three-week course in English is arranged every semester for students of English grunnfag.
There are several institutions of higher education, notably the universities and the regional colleges, that organise in-service training for language teachers. Statens Lærarkurs (Institute for teacher training, Ministry of Church and Education) has a co-ordinating function.
ENGLISH
Short English courses for barneskole, ungdomsskole and gymnas teachers. They are often organised as summer courses by one of the regional colleges in co-operation with local institutions of higher education. They last for one or two weeks and usually take place in the UK. The British Council organises regular "International summer schools for teachers of English". These courses last for seven days and teachers from all levels in the school system are invited to participate. As part of the national agreement between the Norwegian universities and the University of York, the Norwegian Study Centre in York offers language courses for teachers in the Norwegian school system.
The Regional college of Buskerud offers an English language course. The course is organised on a part-time basis, while the total work-load is equal to one semester of full-time study. The course emphasises economic and administrative terminology, civilisation and literature, and gives credit towards the attainment of the cand.mag. degree.
The universities of Oslo, Trondheim and Tromsø offer courses emphasising technical terminology. These courses are designed for teachers of technical subjects.
The University of Newcastle upon Tyne offers a one-year programme in English language. The programme is open for those who have completed formal teacher training and want to teach English in barneskole or ungdomsskole (i.e. to pupils up to the age of 16). Admittance to the programme requires A-language competence from gymnas. The programme corresponds to the grunnfag programmes of the Norwegian universities in terms of credit towards the attainment of the cand.mag. degree.
FRENCH
Several courses are arranged by different organisers (University of Trondheim, Office Franco-Norvégien d'Echange et de Coopération in Caen, and various French institutions).
The Office Franco-Norvégien offers a one-year programme in French language in Caen. The programme is open for those who have completed formal teacher training and want to teach French in ungdomsskole. Admittance to the programme requires C-language competence from gymnas. The programme corresponds to the grunnfag programme of the Norwegian universities.
GERMAN
Several courses are arranged by various organisers (Goethe Institute, University of Oslo, Norwegian Union of Teachers and DAAD). The courses normally take place in the summer and are organised in co-operation with local German institutions of higher education. Most courses last for one or two weeks or more.
The courses are organised on an irregular basis by different institutions. The content of the courses varies considerably and new courses are introduced every year. They often involve both a language/literature component as well as excursions, social events, seminars and pedagogic training. From time to time courses are offered which lead to a higher degree (examples mentioned below, see 3.2.3).
The courses usually last for one or two weeks. Some examples from this year's courses include: Spoken English - Aspects of Learning and Evaluation; Translation and Intercultural Communication; New literary theories. Sometimes, short preparatory courses take place prior to the course, or the participants are invited to a short complementary course after returning to Norway. There are a number of new courses offered by the Faculty of Arts at the University of Bergen to teachers who want to improve their language knowledge in English, German, French and Norwegian as a second language, and take a higher degree. In order to obtain a 15 ECTS credits subject, they have to follow an intensive course for one week during the summer holiday and then meet on five weekends and take the exams in November. To obtain a grunnfag in German (60 ECTS credits), they also start with a one-week course, but have to meet on 14 weekends until the exams the following May.
The LINGUA programme also covers vocational training of language teachers and is regarded as an important and promising link. Bilateral agreements with the universities of Caen, Kiel and York represent an important component of the in-service training of language teachers.
As far as formal training is concerned, there is no difference between teaching one or two languages: To teach a second language in ungdomsskole or gymnas requires, as a minimum, the documentation of grunnfag in the second language, or a corresponding examination from another institution. A one-year formal pedagogic education is also necessary if the candidate has a university degree.
English is generally considered as a second language. As it is mandatory at all Norwegian schools, the general level of competence exceeds that of other languages. This is reflected in the English grunnfag programmes at the universities and the corresponding programmes at the regional colleges. In comparison to other language programmes the English programmes are considered to be more comprehensive, both in terms of content and objectives.
The grunnfag programme in English language is available at the four universities, at a majority of the regional colleges, and at the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration in Bergen.
See section 2.1.1.
See section 2.1.2.
There are no obligatory language courses integrated in non-language programmes, but the possibility of combining subjects individually also across faculty borders gives the opportunity to study languages in combination with other disciplines. In most cases, however, non-language students want elective courses to improve their basic language skills in order to read the literature of their speciality or to prepare for study or work abroad.
Students of sciences and mathematics enrolled at a university in Norway have the option of following a specially adapted French language course at the University of Caen, France. Admission to the course is based on a certain level of competence in French. All four Norwegian universities offer specially designed French language courses for students of sciences and mathematics. The completion of the course at the University of Caen (including the various preparatory language courses) represents a work-load of one semester full-time studies. It also offers credit in the attainment of the cand.mag. degree.
Students of sciences and mathematics at the University of Trondheim have the option of following courses in Norwegian (for foreign students), German and French. The latter is offered as a supplement to the French course preparing for studies at the University of Caen and is organised on two levels. No French language competence is required for admission to this course, while the students of German are required to have B-language competence with good marks.
The University of Oslo offers law students and science and mathematics students courses in English, German and French. Students of sciences and mathematics are offered language courses in Spanish, French and Italian.
Preparation for the Caen course at the universities of Bergen and Oslo:
Specially designed French courses for students of sciences and mathematics who want to prepare for the Caen course. Admission is based on the preparatory course or C-language competence in French. The course represents a work-load of a half semester's study and emphasises linguistics, phonetics and conversation. Nine lessons per week over one semester.
Preparation for the Caen course at the University of Tromsø:
Preparatory course in French for those who do not have French C-language competence, as well as a basic course comprising linguistics, conversation, phonetics and elaboration of notes and minutes.
Preparation for the Caen course at the University of Trondheim:
Specially designed basic French course with four lessons per week over one semester. Admission to the course is limited and based on B-language competence, alternatively C-language competence with good marks.
English/German/French for law students and science and mathematics students at the University of Oslo:
The courses prepare for studies abroad and emphasis is placed on judicial terminology. The English course corresponds to a delfag examination and is taught over two semesters: Five lessons per week for eleven weeks and then five lessons per week for twelve weeks. The German and French courses constitute the work-load of half a delfag programme. Both languages are taught over two semesters: German six lessons per week and then four lessons per week, French six lessons per week for nine weeks and then three lessons per week for six weeks.
Spanish/Italian for students of sciences and mathematics at the University of Oslo:
These courses are identical with the preparatory courses preceding the grunnfag programmes in the two languages. Only the Italian preparatory course offers credit towards the attainment of the cand. mag. degree in sciences and mathematics.
The Norwegian Term Bank does research in the field of new terminology and standardisation. At present, these projects are mostly within the fields of oil technology, environmental policy and medicine. The Term Bank also organises courses and seminars in connection with the projects it is currently involved with. These courses are understandably organised on an irregular basis and are not exclusively for language students or language teachers. The Norwegian Term Bank is attached to the Department of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Bergen, but for the time being no regular degree programmes are offered.
With regard to the training of translators and interpreters, Norway has not come very far. In spite of big efforts from interested parties, only a few steps have been taken towards a fully organised vocational training. The present situation is not satisfactory, and the needs are felt on numerous occasions in everyday life.
The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration has the national administrative responsibility for the examination of candidates who want to become Government Authorised Translators in all languages, in which it is possible to find examiners in Norway or in the Scandinavian countries. On the basis of this examination, the Ministry of Church and Education grants authorisations for working as a Government Authorised Translator. There is neither a specially designed programme nor a fixed curriculum to prepare the candidates for this examination, and each candidate is obliged to acquire the necessary level of competence through individual studies and work experience. It is possible to do some preparation for the examination through translation programmes offered at the University of Oslo, the regional colleges of Agder and Østfold, and at the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration.
The Regional College of Agder offers a three-year programme in translation in either English, French or German. The programme comprises three components: The foreign language (English, French, German), Norwegian and Social Science. The programme provides a comprehensive basis for those who want to work as translators, and gives initial preparation for the Government Authorised Translator examination. The second year of the programme takes place in a country where the language is spoken.
The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration offers one-year programmes in commercial and administrative English, French and German. The content and objectives of these programmes will be presented in section 6.1.1.
The University of Oslo offers delfag, grunnfag, mellomfag and (in the near future) hovedfag programmes in applied language studies and translation.
The Regional College of Østfold offers a two-year programme in mercantile French and international trade, and in mercantile German and international trade. These programmes combine studies in language and culture and studies in business and marketing. There is also a one-year programme in mercantile English where the emphasis is on economic/administrative terminology.
The Regional College of Agder offers a three-year programme in translation (English/French/German). The second year is spent abroad and several one-year programmes at universities in the UK, Canada, the US, France, Germany and Austria have been approved in advance. These programmes are not necessarily within language/literature. In order to be admitted to the English programme the candidate needs a competence level which exceeds that of English A-language from gymnas. The candidate can acquire sufficient competence by choosing supplementary courses in English when he/she is attending gymnas. Admittance to the German and French programmes requires a competence level corresponding to grunnfag. A longer stay in a country where the language is spoken is not required for admittance but is strongly recommended. (See also section 3.1.3.)
The University of Oslo offers delfag, grunnfag, mellomfag and (in the near future) hovedfag programmes in applied language studies and translation. The structure of the programmes is presented in section 3.1.3.
Both the two-year programme in mercantile French and international trade and the corresponding programme in mercantile German at the Regional College of Østfold involve a four-month training period with a company in a country where the language of study is spoken.
B- or C-language competence from secondary school is required for admission to both programmes. The students of the one-year programme in mercantile English are offered a two-week language course at Derby University in the UK. A-language competence from gymnas is required for admission.
A national work-group (committee) for the education of translators and interpreters has been established, constituting a co-operation project between the University of Oslo, the regional colleges of Agder and Østfold, and the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration. The national work-group wants to co-ordinate the existing training of translators and to promote broader and more comprehensive cand.mag. and cand.philol. translation degrees. According to the committee there should be four possibilities leading to either a cand.mag. or a cand.philol. degree in translation:
The national work-group has also proposed to link the attainment of a cand.mag. degree in translation to some kind of governmental authorisation. Such an authorisation will be instituted on a lower level than the existing Government Authorised Translator.
The Regional College of Østfold participates in one ICP-network organised in the field of language/literature. Students on the one-year German language programme and the two-year programme in mercantile German and international trade may become ERASMUS students.
(No impacts yet from the LINGUA programme)
Most of the institutions mentioned here offer one- or two-year programmes in Norwegian and English, some offer Norwegian as a foreign language and German, and a few offer French. Finnish and Sami are only offered at two places in northern Norway.
The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration offers a one-year programme in English, French and German which results in a qualification to teach at gymnas level. The Regional College of Agder has established a three-year programme in translation, which is the first step on the way to professional translator training (see 3.2).
As mentioned before, the content and objectives vary from college to college. Each language department defines the curriculum and teaching methods in accordance to its competence and capacity. All programmes correspond, however, to the grunnfag programmes of the universities and the examination passes can be transferred between the regional colleges and the universities as the regional colleges award their examination passes in accordance to the University Law. Accordingly, all examinations from regional colleges can be incorporated directly into a university degree. This also means that the one-year language programmes are compatible with the language programmes of the universities: The examination from a one-year language programme from one of the regional colleges gives the student direct access to the subsequent mellomfag programme of the universities. However, if there are important disparities in the content of the regional college's language programme and the grunnfag programme of the university, the student may have to pass a supplementary examination of adaptation before he/she is admitted to the mellomfag programme. Each language department decides whether the language programme of the regional college provides the student with an adequate level of competence for direct admittance to the mellomfag programme. And if not, each language department defines the content of the transferring student's supplementary examination.
The one-year language programmes of the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration focus on commercial and administrative terminology as well as linguistics and civilisation. The programmes also involve courses in word processing systems and methodology. The English programme is an advanced study in English language, and the candidates are required to document English grunnfag competence from a university or a regional college. Students with a university degree or relevant work experience from a country where English is spoken can also be admitted. The programme provides initial preparation for the Authorised Translators examination in the field of commercial, administrative, judicial and technical terminology.
Admittance to the French and German language programmes is based on a minimum of B-language competence from gymnas, preferably with supplementary competence. Both programmes comprise four disciplines: linguistics, civilisation and literature, grammar and phonetics, and economic and administrative terminology.
The organisational structure of the regional colleges is currently in the process of being altered. Because of this, assessment varies from college to college, and sometimes between the various departments of the individual regional college. This reorganisation involves an adaptation to the marking system of the universities. Examinations involve both written and oral tests.
During the last two years, only the regional colleges of Agder, Telemark and Østfold have participated in ICP networks in the field of language and literature.
The Norwegian School of Management in Oslo offers a four-year programme in Economics and Business Administration which includes a mandatory course in either English, French, or German. The school also offers a three-year accountancy programme that involves a mandatory English course.
The four-year business programme of the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration involves two optional courses, each representing a work-load of one semester. In addition to other courses, students are offered courses in English, French, German and Spanish.
The objective of the English course of the four-year Economics and Business Administration programme is to provide the students with basic knowledge of the cultural, political and economic situation in the UK and the USA. The students are also expected to be able to communicate well in business contexts. The course requires A-language competence from gymnas. Both the French and German courses are aimed at providing the students with a linguistic basis and cultural perspective that will enable them to work in an environment where the language is spoken. C-language competence is required, but B-language competence is strongly recommended. The examinations of the three courses include both written and oral tests.
The English, French and German courses of the four-year Economics and Business Administration programme all extend over two years and represent a work-load of almost one semester full-time studies (a total of 105 lessons). The courses are not compatible with the courses offered by the universities and the regional colleges and cannot be incorporated into a cand.mag. degree. The same school also offers a three-year accountancy programme that involves a mandatory English course representing a work-load of approximately a fifth of a semester.
The language courses of the Norwegian School of Economics and Business extend over three semesters and are followed by written and oral examinations. Each course represents a work-load of one semester.
Both the Norwegian School of Management and the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration have bilateral exchange programmes with several European, American and Asian universities for the study of economic and administrative subjects. None of the schools participate in Community programmes in the field of language/literature.
(The identification of new needs has to take into consideration the central importance of language to the creation of Europe.)
Identification of needs and requirements in the area of language studies and, consequently, of deficiencies and gaps in language programmes and courses.
The increasing interest in language studies, which of course is gratifying, also represents a problem because of the growth in student numbers, which is not matched by proportionate increases in staff numbers. At the same time the students' entry level is lower than before or at least very heterogeneous which means that it becomes more difficult to obtain the desired goals without lowering the standards.
There are great challenges with regard to the contents of the programmes where cross-cultural aspects, multi-media possibilities and new thematic approaches in connection with European programmes are requested. The problem is how to combine these demands with the resources available in the departments where the staff already have to many administrative responsibilities.
Efforts must be made to improve the written and oral language skills of the undergraduate students leaving the institutions and starting their career as language teachers or in any other profession. There is a general need for foreign language competence in management, government, administration, technology and other areas, but more information about these needs to be made available and presented more persuasively to pupils and students.
Stays of one to three months' duration in the country of the language concerned should become a compulsory part of the language programme on an undergraduate level. Where the language is studied to the highest undergraduate level (hovedfag) the semester or year abroad is usually a natural part of the study but is still voluntary.
In order to accommodate the students' requests for less widely taught languages such as Dutch, Portuguese or Greek, the range of languages available at the institutions should be widened as far as this can be achieved responsibly.
The intended introduction of a second obligatory foreign language from the 8th and 9th form upwards represents a challenge for the training of new teachers and the in-service training of those teachers working in secondary schools (ungdomsskole) who have not themselves been trained to teach a second foreign language. Continuous attempts are being made to improve the language teaching methods at all levels especially by using new multi-media and computer assisted language learning facilities.
Regular in-service teaching programmes for university teachers are amongst the means to improve university teaching methods at the same time to cut improve student progress by cutting down the total study time at post-graduate level which at present is too long. There is also a great need for better competence in second language acquisition and in languages for special purposes both in teaching and in the extent of provision.
Assuming that the less widely spoken languages should also have a chance in the enlarged community it would be sensible to create more space for them in the programmes of the language teaching institutions, especially because the language dimension always includes cultural knowledge and thus contributes to a better understanding of different attitudes.
English plays a dominant role in the academic life of teachers and students. Compared to the need for competence in English the other foreign languages play a minor role but there are needs to be identified for several groups whose specialisation requires certain language skills. Specially designed courses, such as those arranged to prepare students going abroad or staff working with internationalisation, must be developed to meet their needs.
The growing necessity of internalisation in different professions makes it obvious that more people than before have to combine vocational training with the knowledge of more than one foreign language. There is therefore a need for additional staff in the language departments in order to offer courses on a highly specialised level in different fields of study as law, management, technology etc. There is also a need for increased research in the field of applied linguistics and computing science.
Internationalisation has given foreign languages more importance and let's hope it will give more prestige to the whole profession of language teachers and people working with languages within their professions. A high degree of language competence in specialised areas combined with professional expertise both facilitates good cross-border collaboration and makes it possible to achieve the desired result.
In this area there is much to be done. The training of translators consists at present only of three year course. The institutions concerned are working with the development of a post-graduate curriculum in order to extend the training time and bring it up to international standards. It will also be necessary to think of update and in-service training courses once the organisation of the training system is completed.
There is a gap between the highly estimated title of a Government Authorised Translator which is only available for a few candidates every year because of the very high examination demands, and people working as translators with various qualifications.
There is a great need for highly qualified translators in a nation that is becoming more and more involved in international affairs at all levels.
These programmes are in many respects already the results of a need, observed especially within the area of business, administration and management and they have to be extended according to future demands.
Continuous efforts are being made to follow up the developments in society and to cope with its challenges.
In this field too, the exchange of students and trainees must be extended and integrated in the ordinary curriculum in order to optimise the possibilities.
New needs must be identified and courses really corresponding to professional needs have to be developed. This cannot be achieved without basic research done by the training staff and better staff resources in the language departments. (See also Section 7.3.1)
See Section 7.3.2.
See Section 7.3.3.
(The measures proposed may be the responsibility of the regional or national authorities of the member states or of the institutions of the European Union.)
Continuous adaptation to the developments in language research as well as to the new needs in society and economic life must ensure that the initial language training corresponds to the requests of the time. Regular access to in-service training should be a normal routine for all language teachers. Those departments and institutions which still lack it should work out descriptions of their curricula and give better insight into the structure and contents of their curricula. This is important for the sake of evaluation and a possible future ECTS-system in the area of languages.
As mentioned under Section 7.1.3 the national authorities should make it obligatory for all language teacher students to spend three to ten months (according to the status of their language subject) in the country of the language concerned as is the case in other European countries. This can be achieved much more easily now thanks to European exchange programmes.
An extension of the existing exchange programmes for language students will make this task possible and will be of great value. The experience gained from LINGUA- and ERASMUS must be transferred into the SOCRATES programme. There should be more staff exchange programmes on all levels. Teachers are the main authorities to motivate pupils and students to go abroad and provide them with enthusiasm. This is easier to achieve if they themselves are enthusiastic and keep on being involved in the subject.
New areas of applied linguistics, language for special purposes, computer assisted language learning and multi-media programmes must be developed.
This is only possible within the given resources if all authorities co-operate in order to get the best results.
The expertise is spread out over Europe and other parts of the world. By co-operating and taking advantage of each-others experiences standards can be more equal and the exchange programmes will be easier to evaluate.
According to their specialities as regional colleges providing students in different areas with vocational training, a special responsibility lies on their development of programmes which are directly connected to professional life.
The "Norwegian network" consisting of all institutions within higher education is seen as an important means to secure the exchange of experience and standards between the institutions.
A similar function belongs to the international exchange programmes on a higher level. International standards will secure the quality of the programmes and help to develop transparency in the evaluation systems.
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