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SIGMA Scientific Committee on Languages |
Frans Zwarts
Centre for Language and Cognition
University of Groningen
NL - 9700 AS Groningen, The Netherlands
Dutch is one of the two official languages of the Netherlands. It is the mother tongue of 15 million Dutchmen and 5,5 million Belgians. The second official language is Frisian, which is spoken by the 500,000 inhabitants of Friesland - a province of the Netherlands, 1,248 square miles in area, in the north with coastlines on the IJsselmeer and the Waddenzee. Sranan is the native language of the 263,000 members of the Surinamese community in the Netherlands, and Papiamento, the creole language of the Netherlands Antilles, is spoken by the 91,000 Arubans and Antilleans in the Netherlands (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek 1994). There are also 35,000 Moluccans, who speak Dutch but use Malay among themselves. Major immigrant languages are Turkish, the mother tongue of 241,000 Turkish nationals, and Arabic, spoken by the 196,000 Moroccan citizens in the Netherlands (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek 1994).
During the compulsory period of education (5-16 years of age) pupils must study four languages: Dutch, English, French and German. Education in English starts in the last two years of primary school, French and German are taught at secondary schools. Outside Friesland, the language of instruction is Dutch. In areas where the number of children of non-Dutch speaking parents is large, primary schools receive additional government funding to teach these children their first language and include provisions for studying Dutch as a second language.
An important feature of the early stages of secondary education in the Netherlands is the system of basic education (Dutch: basisvorming), introduced by law in 1993 with a view to creating a standardized foundation in subject matter. It provides for general education in a fixed set of 15 compulsory subjects during the first three years at all secondary schools. Dutch and English belong to this group, as do French and German. The fifteenth subject is a `free' subject, to be chosen by the school. It may be Greek, or Latin, or Spanish, or any other subject that the school considers relevant to its programme. Some schools use the fifteenth subject to provide immigrant children with basic education in their own language.
An amendment to the Primary Education Act of 1920, adopted in 1937, permits "a vernacular in active use" to be taught during Dutch language classes. The provincial government of Friesland has used this amendment to introduce Frisian as a compulsory subject. Since 1980, the primary schools in Friesland are obliged to teach Frisian, and Frisian is also permitted as the language of instruction. In practice, a considerable number of schools limit themselves to teaching Frisian as a subject. Only in rural areas where 75 percent of the children are Frisian-speaking, and the teacher's mother tongue is Frisian, is the Frisian language used for instruction (Province of Friesland 1993:13).
Schools providing secondary education may introduce Frisian into their curriculum as the fifteenth subject. Due to the absence of a good statutory framework and lack of financial possibilities, the position of Frisian at this level is anything but strong. Only 5 percent of the students in secondary schools are taking Frisian as a subject (Province of Friesland 1993:17).
In 1980, the national governments of Belgium and the Netherlands established the Dutch Language Union, an intergovernmental organization which serves to integrate both Dutch speaking communities in the areas of language and literature. Decisions affecting orthography, grammar, dictionaries, legal and official terminology, and the requirements for the Certificate in Dutch as a Foreign Language have been delegated to the Dutch Language Union and require unanimous approval (Nederlandse Taalunie 1990; 1991).
Higher education is provided for the most part by universities, polytechnics and colleges. The universities prepare students for independent scientific work in an academic or professional setting. Polytechnics and colleges (hogescholen) offer higher professional education which concentrates on applied science, and provides students with the knowledge and skills they will need for specific professions. The Open University offers both types of higher education to people who wish to obtain a degree or diploma but are unable or do not want to attend full-time, regular courses. Instruction is largely in the form of home study courses.
There are 13 universities in the Netherlands, the two oldest of which are Leiden University (1575) and the University of Groningen (1614). With seven other academic institutions - the University of Amsterdam (1632), Utrecht University (1636), the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (1880), the University of Nijmegen (1923), Tilburg University (1927), the Erasmus University in Rotterdam (1973), and the University of Limburg in Maastricht (1976) -, they provide higher education in a large number of traditional disciplines ranging from the sector of language and culture to behaviour and society, science, medical and health sciences, economics, and law. Three universities offer degree programmes in engineering and technology: Delft University of Technology (1905), Eindhoven University of Technology (1956), and the University of Twente in Enschede (1961). There is one university - Wageningen Agricultural University (1918) - which provides study programmes in the area of agriculture and natural environment. In 1992 a total of 161,542 full-time students were enrolled in the thirteen universities (Nuffic 1993: 97). In the same year, 21,588 students graduated from university programmes. As is evident from the enrolment figures, the University of Amsterdam (23,071), Utrecht University (21,503), the University of Groningen (17,828), and Leiden University (16,051) are the four largest institutions.
In the Netherlands, a distinction is made between the degree programmes offered by universities and those provided by polytechnics and colleges. The purpose of higher professional education as defined by the Higher Education and Research Act (Wet op het Hoger Onderwijs en Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, adopted in 1993) is to offer theoretical instruction and to develop the skills required for practical application in a particular profession. The focus is on one specific professional field, and practical experience is an important part of the training. There are currently 76 polytechnics and colleges in the Netherlands, a number which may become smaller as more schools are forced to merge for the sake of efficiency and better management. Among these schools are 33 institutions which offer degrees for teachers at primary level and for second level teachers in some areas. In 1992, a total of 214,041 full-time students were enrolled in the polytechnics and colleges. In the same year, 43,107 students graduated from these schools. The number of registered students in the sector of education in 1991/92 was 35,200 (Nuffic 1993:98).
Admission to higher education depends on the type of general education at secondary level. Students who pass the final examination of university preparatory schools (voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs) have the right to enter a degree programme. For some programmes the university will require that certain subjects were part of the student's examination. In addition, restrictions may be placed on the number of students that can be enrolled. University preparatory schools are the highest type of secondary education available in the Netherlands. Fewer than 13 percent of all secondary school graduates obtain such a diploma. Students who have passed the final examination of a school for higher general secondary education (hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs) can be admitted to a polytechnic or college. Again, restrictions on enrolment and additional requirements as regards the student's examination subjects may apply.
Higher education has seen sustained growth in the course of the last ten years. Full-time student enrolment has risen from 268,241 in 1980 to 412,114 in 1992 (Nuffic 1993:97). The number of graduates has also increased, from 57,885 in 1985/86 to 64,695 in 1991/92. With a total of 214,041 registered students in 1992, the sector of higher professional education is slightly larger than the university sector, which had 198,073 registered students in that year, the Open University included.
The degree programmes offered by Dutch institutions of higher education are characterized by two different levels of advancement: undergraduate programmes, which generally take four years of full-time study, and postgraduate programmes, which may vary in length from some weeks to four years.
Since the implementation of the Higher Education and Research Act, the study load of undergraduate programmes is quantified by means of a system of credits. One credit represents one week of full-time study; that is, 40 hours including contact hours, practicals and independent work. As the academic year consists of 42 weeks, one year of full-time study is worth 42 credits. Most undergraduate programmes require 168 credits. Exceptions are dentistry and philosophy of science, requiring 210 credits, and medicine, pharmacy and veterinary medicine, which require 252 credits.
Undergraduate programmes in the Netherlands are demanding, and few students are actually able to obtain the required number of credits within the corresponding number of years. For that reason, registration as a student may be extended by two years. In most disciplines, therefore, students are given six years to complete a programme, in the above-mentioned exceptions seven and eight years.
The first year of undergraduate programmes is referred to as the propaedeutic year and is made up of a specified number of prescribed courses within the boundaries of the discipline, which are general in nature and supply the necessary background. The propaedeutic year is completed by a preliminary examination which serves as a selection mechanism, sorting out students who have a reasonable chance of succeeding from those who do not. Students who fulfil the requirements may continue or enter one of the postpropaedeutic degree programmes, which are of three years' duration.
Undergraduate programmes offered by the universities are completed with a thesis, comparable to the Master's thesis in length, depth and scope, and a final examination colloquially referred to as the doctoraal. The main purpose of the thesis (scriptie) is to demonstrate the student's ability to conduct independent research. Though the requirements at polytechnics and colleges vary according to the study programme, in general students have to write a major term paper and prepare a final project, both of which draw upon the practical experience gained. Graduates are awarded the Certificate of Higher Professional Education (Getuigschrift Hoger Beroepsonderwijs).
There are specific legal rights connected to the degrees which universities and polytechnics offer. University graduates may use the title doctorandus, which is abbreviated to drs before the family name. The corresponding titles in engineering and law are ingenieur (ir) and meester (mr), respectively. Since the introduction of the University Education Act of 1986, it has been possible for university graduates to use the internationally more familiar title of Master. This possibility has also been included in the Higher Education and Research Act. Graduates from polytechnics and colleges may use the title of Bachelor.
Postgraduate programmes can be grouped into five categories. University graduates may enter a one-year, full-time teacher training programme which enables them to acquire the necessary qualification for secondary schools. These programmes are provided by the universities and involve both taught courses and classroom teaching practice. Universities, polytechnics and colleges also offer a wide variety of short post-degree courses for the purpose of upgrading professional expertise. Examples of longer programmes providing advanced professional training are the postgraduate programmes in architecture (four years' duration) and the fine and performing arts (two years' duration).
A separate category of postgraduate programmes is made up of the growing number of Master's programmes offered at polytechnics and colleges, frequently in conjunction with a British or American institution of higher education. The popularity of these programmes attests to the need felt by graduates from these schools for advanced training in an international setting. Master's programmes differ from each other with regard to curricula, place of study, institution conferring the degree, and duration. To guarantee a certain standard of quality, representatives from the Dutch Association of Polytechnics and Colleges have published guidelines for the development and implementation of such programmes.
Postgraduate programmes involving research and a thesis are normally at doctoral level and require four years of study. The vast majority of candidates is appointed as research assistant at a university. As there are only a limited number of such assistantships available, admission is extremely competitive. Candidates who have been appointed proceed to the preparation of a Ph.D. thesis without obtaining any intermediate degree. Fulfilment of all the requirements, including a viva voce examination on the thesis known as `public defence', leads to the highest possible academic achievement in the Netherlands, the doctorate.
The teaching of foreign languages is the responsibility of primary and secondary schools. During the last two years of primary education, English is a required course for pupils. Poor results are reported, due to the linguistic and didactic incompetence of primary teachers, who need no official qualification over and above their teacher's certificate (Edelenbos 1988:101-103; Van Essen 1990:78). At secondary level, all schools for general or vocational education have a fixed set of 15 compulsory subjects during the first three years of basic education. They include Dutch, English, French and German. Actual programme length extends beyond these three years. Secondary modern schools (middelbaar algemeen voortgezet onderwijs) have a four-year programme, those for higher general secondary education have a five-year programme. Both types are completed with a final examination which consists of six or seven subjects, two of which are compulsory: Dutch and either English, French or German. The remaining four or five are selected from the fixed set of 15 subjects. University preparatory programmes are of six years' duration and end with a final examination consisting of seven or eight subjects, five of which are compulsory. The subjects in which students must take an examination include Dutch and either English, French or German.
Since English, French and German are taught in all secondary schools, degree programmes in these languages are offered only at post-secondary level. All other languages are taught ab initio. In the absence of reliable research data it is difficult to say what the standard of language teaching is in secondary schools and to what extent it affects the standard of language teaching in higher education. What evidence there is, cannot be regarded as positive. A recent investigation into the level of achievement in reading, listening and speaking showed that pupils in post-elementary education produce modest results after three years of training in English, French and German (Van der Tuin et al 1986; Van Essen 1990). As far as the reading and listening skills in German and English are concerned 80 percent of the subjects did reasonably well. This was also true of the reading skills in French, but for the listening skills in French the score was lower. Oral proficiency in English was deeply disappointing, that in French even more so. Pupils' syntactic and lexical knowledge of English should not be overestimated either: 20 percent of them will not be able to use productively more than one-third of the basic syntactic rules or know receptively more than 500 out of the first 1,000 most frequent words.
The Task Force which recently examined modern language studies in the Netherlands reports that there is a curious gap between secondary education and the universities (Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren 1993:59). Complaints about students' lack of writing ability and their insufficient understanding of grammatical structure have never lead to an attempt to discuss such matters with representatives of secondary education. For this reason the Task Force proposes a liaison committee whose task is to find ways of improving the link-up between secondary school and university (Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren 1993:60). With a view to tightening up admission requirements, a comparative investigation of the entrance level of different groups of secondary school graduates is also recommended.
It remains to be seen whether there is any relationship at all between the standards of language teaching in secondary schools and universities. Students of Italian and Spanish, which are studied ab initio in the Netherlands, are known to reach the same level of competence as students of French, which is offered at post-secondary level only.
Language degree programmes at undergraduate level are offered by six universities: Leiden University, the University of Groningen, the University of Amsterdam, Utrecht University, the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and the University of Nijmegen. Most of these programmes are long established and they all focus on the development of language skills as a means of access to another culture. The student must acquire linguistic knowledge to degree level, develop proficiency, particularly oral and auditory skills, and at the same time study the appropriate literary and cultural tradition in order to understand it more fully. As such, the aims and objectives of these programmes may be said to belong to the tradition of liberal education.
Arts degree programmes in Dutch, English, French, and German are available at all six universities. Dutch, English and French are popular languages, but the number of students taking German has decreased dramatically in recent years. Spanish is taught in four universities (Leiden, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Nijmegen) and may be taken as an option within the degree programmes in Romance Languages and Literature (Groningen) and Languages and Cultures of Latin America (Leiden). Italian is studied in Leiden, Amsterdam and Utrecht, Portugese only in Utrecht. Italian is also offered as a postpropaedeutic option to students of Romance Languages and Literature at the University of Groningen. Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are available as options within the two degree programmes in Scandinavian Languages and Literature in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Groningen). Finnish may be studied by students of Finno-Ugric Languages and Literature at the University of Groningen. Modern Greek is available in Groningen as well, but it may also be studied in Amsterdam. The only Arts degree programme in Frisian is provided by the University of Groningen.
A degree in Dutch covers the language, literature and culture of the Netherlands from medieval times to the present. In the first two years, roughly a fourth of the courses concentrate on language skills. Literary courses take up approximately half of the time, and the remaining quarter is devoted to linguistics. During the last two years, students may specialise in literature or in linguistics. The number of students taking a degree in Dutch declined in the late nineteen-eighties, but is still considerable.
The programme in Frisian at the University of Groningen has a strong linguistic orientation. About 60 percent of the courses deal with language skills, historical linguistics, particularly in relation to Old Frisian, and modern theories of language. Frisian literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries takes up much of the remaining time. The number of students has always been small.
Degree programmes in other languages generally include development of language skills to degree level, together with the study of literature, culture and linguistics. In almost all universities the literary studies, which take up about half of the programme, cover the period from the Middle Ages to the present. Oral, auditory and writing skills, historical linguistics, and linguistic theory fill up the other half. Courses are usually delivered in the language studied or in Dutch, the exact proportion depending on the policy of the department.
While Arts degrees continue to focus on linguistic and literary studies, several trends can be observed in their development since the early nineteen-eighties. The definition of language studies has broadened to include the study of culture and society. Cinema, politics since 1945, and contemporary social issues are examples of areas of study available to students in addition to literature. Emphasis on language skills has grown, and modern linguistic theory, particularly generative grammar, is now part of every language programme in the Netherlands. The area studied has also been widened. In some universities, the degree in French includes courses in the literature of Francophone Canada. Other institutions offer a degree programme in Spanish which takes account of the literature and culture of Latin America.
The observed trends have been initiated by two developments. First, the level of education among Dutch citizens has increased vastly since the early sixties. In 1960, as little as 40% of the population had completed a secondary school programme and only 20% had graduated from a higher general or higher vocational secondary school. Less than 1% had had higher education. In 1995, more than 80% of the population has graduated from a secondary school and more than 60% from a higher general or higher vocational secondary school. Over 15% has completed a degree programme provided by an institution of higher education (Nuffic 1993:96). As mentioned by the Task Force which has investigated the prospects of the Humanities in the Netherlands, advanced education has come to be seen as an investment in one's personal future, and increasingly larger numbers of students choose an Arts degree programme to gain access to the range of positions which require higher education (Commissie Toekomst Geesteswetenschappen 1995:7).
The second development concerns the introduction of a funding system which invites institutions of higher education to compete for these students by offering new degree programmes which cater to their wishes. In making the allocation of institutional budgets mainly dependent on student numbers, the Dutch government has introduced a pseudo-market mechanism which rewards populous programmes and punishes less popular ones. As observed by the Task Force, one of the unforeseen effects of the system has been that a number of traditional disciplines, including German, the Scandinavian languages, Frisian, Finnish and Old Germanic, have been confronted with diminishing faculty and loss of specializations. Particularly illustrative in this respect are the provisions for German, which have been badly damaged in recent years.
Arts degree programmes at undergraduate level in the Netherlands are of four years' duration. They are generally structured as single programmes, with a fixed set of required courses in the first two years and a growing degree of specialisation in the last two years. Elective courses outside the degree subject belong to the programme as well. Though the ratio of required to elective courses varies according to discipline, the Arts degree usually has an optional component of 21 credits. Assessment in all these programmes is by coursework, a preliminary examination at the end of the first year and a final examination at the end of the fourth year. Students must also prepare a thesis which is comparable to the Master's thesis in length, scope and depth.
After the preliminary examination, students may choose one of the postpropaedeutic degree programmes, which are of three years' duration. These include Linguistics and Theoretical and Comparative Literature (both at all six universities), Applied Linguistics (Nijmegen, Groningen, Amsterdam), Medieval Studies (Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam), Comparative Linguistics (Leiden), Phonetics (Utrecht) and Old Germanic Language and Literature (Groningen), all of which are long established programmes. The degree in Frisian is also a traditional postpropaedeutic programme, but of two years' duration. Computer Applications in the Humanities (Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam), European Studies (Amsterdam), American Studies (Amsterdam, Groningen, Nijmegen, Utrecht), Communication (Groningen), Policy and Management in International Organizations (Groningen), Business Communication Studies (Nijmegen) and Speech and Language Pathology (Nijmegen) belong to the degree programmes which have been introduced only recently.
The expected number of Dutch students on ERASMUS and LINGUA exchanges in 1994/95 is 8,408, which represents 6.1% of the estimated student mobility flow in Europe and illustrates the important role that these Community programmes play in higher education in the Netherlands (EC 1994:1026). Most of the planned exchanges involve the United Kingdom (2,253), Germany (1,116) and France (1,084), but Spain (812), Belgium (700), Italy (532) and Sweden (432) are also popular among Dutch students. Denmark (241), Ireland (236), Greece (203), Finland (191), Portugal (178), Austria (157), Norway (148), Switzerland (118) and Iceland (3) have become accepted destinations as well.
As a proportion of the visiting student population Dutch students on exchanges in Sweden (13.3%), Norway (11.4%), Belgium (10.2%), Finland (9.2%), Switzerland (8.7%), Denmark (8.2%), the United Kingdom (7.8%) and Austria (7.1%) represent a larger group than elsewhere. In France (4.4%), Portugal (5.1%), Italy (5.2%), Ireland (5.3%) and Spain (5.4%), the proportion of visiting Dutch students is below the overall average of 6.1%.
Mobility within the area of languages and philological sciences (subject code 9) involves 317 Dutch students, mobility within the area of Lingua (subject code 20), 416 Dutch students (EC 1994:1032). This means that the Dutch contribution to student exchanges is 2.7% in the area of languages and philological sciences, and 4.0% in the area of Lingua. In view of the overall Dutch average of 6.1%, it must be concluded that institutions of higher education in the Netherlands are not particularly active in these two subject areas. Mathematics and computer science (2.6%) and engineering and technology (4.4%) also attract little attention, while the proportion of Dutch exchange students in education and teacher training (10%), art and design (9.9%), medical sciences (9.3%), and law (8.7%) is significantly higher than in other subject areas.
As a proportion of the total number of Dutch students in exchange programmes, the students in the areas of mathematics and computer science (1.4%), languages and philological sciences (3.8%), Lingua (4.9%) and engineering and technology (8.3%) represent much smaller groups than their European counterparts, whose proportional sizes are as follows: mathematics and computer science 3.3%, languages and philological sciences 8.7%, Lingua 7.5%, engineering and technology 11.5%. Both in the area of languages and philological sciences and in the area of Lingua, the group of Dutch exchange students is proportionally smaller than the corresponding groups in the other EU and EFTA countries. Within the field of law, on the other hand, the group of Dutch exchange students (10.3%) is proportionally the largest of the EU and EFTA countries.
The total number of approved ICPs in the area of languages and philological sciences is 233. In 46, a Dutch institution participates, for the greater part in areas 9.1 (modern EC languages) and 9.2 (general and comparative literature) (EC 1994:1067-1072). The most active institutions are the University of Amsterdam, which takes part in 14 ICPs, Leiden University, which has entered 11 ICPs, and Utrecht University, which participates in 9 ICPs. On the whole, the universities in the Netherlands appear to be more active in this area than the polytechnics and colleges. Of the 46 ICPs with a Dutch participant, only 8 have one of the Dutch polytechnics and colleges as a partner. The remaining 36 ICPs all involve universities.
Within the area of Lingua altogether 225 ICPs have been approved, 44 of which have a Dutch partner, for the greater part in areas 20.0 (LINGUA) and 20.5 (German Language) (EC 1994:1094-1099). The most successful institutions are the University of Amsterdam, which has entered 9 ICPs, and Utrecht University and the University of Groningen, both of which take part in 6 ICPs.
In the past twelve years modern language studies have developed in combination with areas other than linguistics and literary studies. Three types of development can be distinguished. First, within the Humanities disciplines, languages have come to be seen as appropriate subjects for students who wish to specialise not in literature or linguistics, but in topics which are considered to belong to History, Political Science or Sociology. This has given rise to a number of degrees in which the development of language skills is combined with a core programme in the history, economics and politics of the geographical area studied. Typical examples are German Studies (Nijmegen), Latin-America Studies (Utrecht), American Studies (Amsterdam, Groningen, Nijmegen, Utrecht) and Regional Studies (Groningen). Long established programmes such as Russian Area Studies (Leiden), East-European Studies (Amsterdam), Dutch Studies (Leiden), Languages and Culture of Latin America (Leiden) and Middle-East Studies (Nijmegen) also belong to this category. Inasmuch as language skills are given a prominent place in these area studies, they may be regarded as being essentially language programmes.
As observed by the academic review committee in its report on new degree programmes in the Humanities (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:83), the second type of development derives from historical subjects which have been combined with language study and have been given the status of autonomous programmes. A good example is the degree in European Studies offered by the University of Amsterdam, which combines a number of subjects within and outside the Arts degree, including History, Law and Economics. Students focus on the history, politics and sociology of Europe and its institutions, and must study one modern language as a major component of the degree. At the University of Groningen a programme in Policy and Management in International Organizations is available. The degree provides core elements from the disciplines of History, Management Science, Law and Economics, with much attention to international relations. Students have the option of taking one modern language to degree level. Utrecht University offers two programmes of this kind, History of Eastern Europe and Russian Area Studies, and History of International Relations, both as options within the degree in Liberal Arts. The latter is in essence a historical study of international relations, supplemented by courses in the areas of Political Science, International Law and Economics. The specialist option in History of Eastern Europe and Russian Area Studies provides a study of the East-European past and present, mainly through the disciplines of History and Political Science, with Russian as an essential component of the programme.
The third type of development concerns the introduction of degree programmes in Communication which include language study as well. A typical example is the Arts degree in Business Communication Studies offered by the University of Nijmegen, which has two specialist options in the area of foreign languages (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:97). Students who choose one of these options must study two modern languages, together with a core programme in Business Studies and Communication Science. The Arts degree in Communication at the University of Groningen also aims to produce graduates capable of pursuing careers in which language skills are essential. Students with a foundation in Danish, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Norwegian, Russian, Spanish or Swedish study this language throughout the course, in addition to a core programme in Communication Science. At Utrecht University and the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, such options are available as well within the degree in Liberal Arts.
In addition to these new programmes, Tilburg University provides Arts degrees in Language and Culture Studies and in Language, Information and Communication. Specializations include Language and Minorities, Text and Communication, and Theory and History of Literature. Erasmus University in Rotterdam offers a degree in Art and Culture and at the University of Limburg in Maastricht a degree programme in Cultural Studies is available. The Open University has no provisions for language study, but offers a home study course in Cultural Sciences.
Most of the programmes mentioned in this section are postpropaedeutic courses of three years' duration which have been in operation since the eighties. An exception is Business Communication Studies (Nijmegen), which has been turned into a four-year programme in 1993. The degree programme in Liberal Arts provided by Utrecht University, which had its first intake in 1985, is also of four years' duration, as are the degree programmes in Language and Culture Studies and in Language, Information and Communication provided by Tilburg University.
As opposed to the traditional language and literature programmes, the new degrees in the Humanities are generally structured as joint programmes, in which language study is combined with one or two other disciplines. Students study a fixed set of required subjects in the first postpropaedeutic year and then specialize in one or more subjects in the second and final postpropaedeutic years. The new degrees also include an elective component of 21 credits. Assessment in all these programmes is by coursework and a final examination at the end of the third postpropaedeutic year. A thesis at Master's level is included as well.
Examinations in Dutch institutions of higher education are spread over the year and consist of a specified number of preliminary examinations, oral or written, which students must pass. When they have done so, and have met all other requirements, they are said to have passed the examination.
The academic review committee reports that some of the new degree programmes have more content, and are hence more difficult, than others. A good example is German Studies in Nijmegen, with an annual intake of 20 students, which represents an almost ideal academic programme in the eyes of the committee, with much attention to language skills, research methodology, statistics, the political and social history of modern Germany, cultural-historical developments in the German speaking areas, and German law (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:89). European Studies (Amsterdam), on the other hand, has not yet reached the level of interdisciplinary synthesis which is necessary to guarantee sufficient scientific depth (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:88). Several programmes suffer from a heterogeneous intake consisting of students of History, Liberal Arts or the modern languages. In such cases, language study to degree level may well be a stumbling-block to students of History and Liberal Arts, while students of Liberal Arts or the modern languages are often insufficiently prepared to study historical, political and economic subjects.
Some new degree programmes have become so popular that they are confronted with the attendant problems of massiveness. In 1993/94, Business Communication Studies (Nijmegen) had 900 full-time students, Communication Science (Utrecht) 500, European Studies (Amsterdam) 985, Policy and Management in International Organizations (Groningen) 248, Communication (Groningen) 508, and History of International Relations (Utrecht) 377 (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994). For the most part faculty numbers have not increased at the same rate, giving rise to staff-student ratios of 1:40 or worse. This means that some seminars must be replaced by massive lectures and that others become overcrowded - developments which eventually affect the educational attainment targets associated with the degree programme.
The Committee on the Future of the Humanities refers to the new Arts degrees as S-programmes and opposes them to the traditional Arts degrees, which are called T-programmes. This distinction is made because S-programmes, inasmuch as they conform to the market and adapt to the consumptive choices of individual students, are not considered to belong to the public mission of the Humanities. The committee fears that the S-programmes, which attract thousands of students and prepare them for positions which are now often occupied by graduates from higher vocational schools or other academic sectors, will push aside the less populous traditional T-programmes (Commissie Toekomst Geesteswetenschappen 1995:33-35). In order to prevent this, a number of measures are proposed, including a sharp organizational distinction between S-programmes and T-programmes, assignment of more favourable staff-student ratios to T-programmes, and the introduction of a separate system of budget financing for T-programmes instead of the present allocation mechanism based on student numbers. In addition, the committee recommends that T-programmes, which are currently of four years' duration, be extended to six-year courses, that T-programmes only be provided by the six classical universities (Leiden, Groningen, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Nijmegen) and that the educational tasks of the Open University be transferred to the six classical universities (Commissie Toekomst Geesteswetenschappen 1995:7-16).
ERASMUS exchanges are vital to the degrees in European Studies (Amsterdam) and Policy and Management in International Organizations (Groningen). The total number of approved ICPs in the area of international relations, European studies and area studies (subject code 14.6) is 31. In 12, a Dutch institution of higher education participates (EC 1994:1089-1090), 4 times in the role of coordinator. The most active institutions are the University of Amsterdam, which takes part in 3 ICPs, and the University of Groningen and the Institute of Higher Professional Education Sittard, both of which participate in 2 ICPs (EC 1994:1175-1181). At a European level, participation in the 31 ICPs which focus on this subject area is as follows: Germany 24, France 22, United Kingdom 22, Spain 20, Italy 18, Belgium 12, the Netherlands 12, Greece 11, Portugal 8, Ireland 7, Finland 7, Switzerland 7, Denmark 6, Norway 5, Sweden 5, Austria 4.
Within the field of communication and information sciences (subject code 15) 33 ICPs have been approved, 13 of which have a Dutch partner, for the greater part in areas 15.0 (communication and information sciences), 15.1 (journalism), 15.3 (public relations, publicity, advertising) and 15.4 (library science) (EC 1994:1091-1092). The most active institutions are the University of Amsterdam, which has entered 3 ICPs, and the Hanzehogeschool Groningen, which takes part in 2 ICPs. The expected number of Dutch students on ERASMUS exchanges involving communication and information sciences in 1994/95 is 105 (EC 1994:1032), which represents 7.5% of the mobility in this area.
Postgraduate programmes involving research and a thesis are normally at doctoral level and require four years of study. The vast majority of candidates is appointed as research assistant at a university. As there are only a limited number of such assistantships available, admission is extremely competitive. Candidates who have been appointed proceed to the preparation of a Ph.D. thesis without obtaining any intermediate degree.
With the aid of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), the Dutch government has initiated a process of establishing officially recognized graduate schools (onderzoekscholen) which provide postgraduate courses to research assistants and help them complete their doctoral thesis. The purpose of this action is not only to streamline and improve postgraduate education in the Netherlands, but to identify and stimulate excellent research as well. Among the 62 schools which have been recognized so far, there are 3 in the area of language studies and linguistics: the theoretically oriented National Graduate School of Linguistics (LOT), made up of linguists from Leiden, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Nijmegen and Tilburg, the Centre for Non-Western Studies (CNWS) in Leiden, which has a strong descriptive and comparative orientation, and the School of Behavioural and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN) at the University of Groningen, which studies language in the multidisciplinary context of linguistics, cognitive psychology, biophysics, neuroanatomy and biology. The total number of research assistants in the area of language studies and linguistics is 120. In the field of literature, no school has been recognized as yet and research efforts associated with the new Arts degrees are often feeble.
The preponderance of linguistics is related to the prominent position of linguistic research in the Netherlands during the last two decades. Between 1984 and 1989, the Netherlands was responsible for 4.2% of the scientific output within the field of linguistics, which puts this discipline far ahead of astronomy, another important Dutch speciality, whose share in the world output was only 2.4% (Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren 1993:19).
Information provided by the European Union, the Council of Europe and UNESCO indicates that it is safe to say that the English and Irish Master's degrees are on a par with the Dutch doctoraal, the French maŒtrise and the German Diplom. For this reason, the Master's degree is considered an undergraduate degree in the Netherlands.
The three official graduate schools mentioned in this section all offer postgraduate courses to the research assistants which have been appointed by the universities. The National Graduate School of Linguistics provides twice a year an intensive two-week programme consisting of a number of advanced courses. Teaching staff is selected from the Dutch universities on the basis of a rotation system. In addition, two or three researchers from abroad are invited each time. The courses are as a rule evaluated very positively by the participating assistants.
The Centre for Non-Western Studies in Leiden and the School of Behavioural and Cognitive Neurosciences in Groningen provide postgraduate courses as well, not in the form of intensive programmes, but on the basis of the regular term system. The latter has a fixed set of general, but advanced courses by way of introduction, followed by a number of elective subjects.
Assistants who work on their theses are generally required to participate in research seminars. They are also encouraged to attend international conferences and present papers about their research. Some teaching may be part of their activities as well. After the professor which supervises the assistant's research has given her or his approval, the thesis is presented to a committee of three external advisers who have the status of professor. They review it and must give their approval as well before it may be printed. Because composite theses are allowed in the Netherlands, the chapters may consist of published articles.
The public review session takes the shape of a viva voce examination on the thesis. A panel consisting of the dean, the supervisor, the three members of the review committee and at least two professors or readers examines the candidate for forty-five minutes. Fulfilment of all the requirements leads to the highest possible academic achievement in the Netherlands, the doctorate.
In the area of theoretical and descriptive linguistics the impact of ERASMUS has been significant, mainly because it has enabled postgraduate research assistants and advanced undergraduate students to attend the Annual European Summer School in Logic, Language and Information, which has been organized six times since its beginning in 1989. This intensive two-week programme provides for over 500 students, research assistants and faculty members to take part in the 80 courses which are offered. The school is organized on the basis of a rotation system and has been hosted by the University of Groningen (1989), the University of Leuven (1990), the University of Saarland (1991), the University of Exeter (1992), the University of Lisbon (1993) and Copenhagen Business School (1994).
Though career prospects for graduates of language programmes are limited within the area of secondary education, 90% have no difficulty in finding employment, for the greater part in positions which are outside the area of languages. Holders of a doctor's degree, which is the minimum requirement for becoming a faculty member, find it increasingly difficult to acquire a university position. The Task Force which examined modern language studies in the Netherlands proposes that holders of the doctorate be admitted to the postgraduate teacher training programmes in order to obtain the grade-one qualification for secondary education (Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren 1993:63-64). Since the sixties teachers with a doctor's degree have become a rare phenomenon in university preparatory schools, which may explain why freshmen often have an incomplete image of the objectives of degree programmes in higher education. The committee recommends that half of the secondary school teachers be recruited from holders of the doctorate and sees this as another way of improving the link-up between secondary education and the universities and changing pupils' attitude towards science and scholarship. The implementation of these proposals is assigned to the liaison committee mentioned in Section 1.3.
There are 31 polytechnics and colleges of education in the Netherlands which provide training for primary school teachers. In 1992 a total of 17,379 students were enrolled (Visitatiecommissie Lerarenopleiding Basisonderwijs 1993). As English is compulsory in the last two years, primary school teachers may in effect also be called foreign language teachers.
The Dutch system of basic education distinguishes an early stage of three years in the programmes of secondary schools (See Section 1.1.2 above). Teachers at this level are required to possess the grade-two qualification, which entitles the holder to teach in the first three years of secondary schools and is awarded by 13 polytechnics and colleges in the Netherlands. Ten of these institutions offer language degree programmes, both full-time and part-time: the Hogeschool van Amsterdam (Dutch, English, French, and Arabic [only part-time]), Hogeschool Gelderland in Arnhem (Dutch, German [only full-time], English, and French [only full-time]), Holland Polytechnic in Diemen (Dutch, German, English, French), Christian College of Higher Education "De Driestar" in Gouda (Dutch and English [both part-time]), Leeuwarden Polytechnic (Dutch, English, German, French, Frisian [only part-time], and Spanish [only part-time]), Rotterdam Polytechnic (Dutch, German, English, French, and Turkish [only part-time]), Hogeschool Katholieke Leergangen Sittard (Dutch, German, and English), Hogeschool Katholieke Leergangen Tilburg (Dutch, German, English, French, and Spanish [only part-time]), Central Netherlands Polytechnic in Utrecht (Dutch, German, English, French, Arabic, and Spanish [only part-time]), and Christelijke Hogeschool Windesheim in Zwolle (Dutch and English).
University graduates who possess a degree in one of the approved subjects for secondary schools may receive teacher training in the form of a one-year, full-time postgraduate programme. The degree awarded is the grade-one qualification which permits the holder to teach in the upper forms of secondary schools. There are six universities which offer such programmes to graduates with a language degree: Leiden University, the University of Groningen, the University of Amsterdam, Utrecht University, the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and the University of Nijmegen. The grade-one qualification can also be obtained from polytechnics and colleges which provide part-time programmes for teachers who possess the grade-two qualification. This possibility is about to be phased out.
Students in training programmes for primary school teachers receive courses in developmental and educational psychology, theory of education, and didactics. Academic subjects typically include Dutch, English, French, German, Mathematics, History, Geography and Music. Out-of-school activities also form an important part of the curriculum, including practical teaching in schools and class observation. Though primary school teachers may have to teach English, no official qualification over and above their teacher's certificate is required.
The review committee for the education of primary teachers reports that training programmes pay too little attention to the problem of cultural minorities and underpriviliged groups in the Netherlands (Visitatiecommissie Lerarenopleiding Basisonderwijs 1993:47). The various aspects of this subject are not treated very thoroughly, with too much emphasis on pupils of Turkish or Moroccan origin. In general, the relationship between cultural background, social setting and learning problems remains underexposed, as does the subject of second language acquisition. Inasmuch as the Netherlands grows closer to becoming a multicultural society, the committee finds it important that programmes for primary school teachers give attention to these matters.
The training programme for secondary teachers with a grade-two qualification consists of a four-year degree programme in one of the approved subjects for secondary schools. Languages which can be studied at this level are Arabic, Dutch, English, French, Frisian (only part-time), German, Spanish (only part-time) and Turkish (only part-time). Besides the acquisition of language skills, students must study the approriate literary and cultural tradition. Educational subjects include developmental psychology, pedagogy, psychology of education and didactics, as well as a course in the teaching of the degree subject. Out-of-school activities also form an important part of the curriculum, including class observation and a minimum of 100 hours in classroom teaching practice.
University graduates who have been awarded a degree in Dutch, English, French, Frisian, German, Italian or Spanish may study for a grade-one teaching qualification. Admission to the one-year, postgraduate training programme for secondary school teachers depends on the number of available places, which is determined annually by the Ministry of Education and Science. Candidates must have completed a two-month introductory course in education as part of their degree programme. The subjects which are studied include theory of education, didactics, language pedagogy, and developmental and educational psychology. Nearly one half of the year is devoted to out-of-school activities, including a minimum of 120 hours in classroom teaching practice, class observation and supervision of one or two pupils. A course in the teaching of the degree subject also belongs to the training programme. In 1992 the numbers of students enrolled in these postgraduate programmes were as follows: Dutch 51 (allowed: 53), English 41 (allowed: 49), French 38 (allowed: 54), Frisian 1 (allowed: 2), German 17 (allowed: 16), Italian 0 (allowed: 2), Spanish 5 (allowed: 5) (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Universitaire Lerarenopleiding 1992). The figures fail to show that German is one of the subjects with a shortage of secondary school teachers. Between 1987 and 1991 a total of 113 places were available to students wishing to achieve the grade-one qualification in German. Only 52 decided to pursue this option.
Several polytechnics and colleges offer part-time programmes of two to three years' duration to teachers who possess the grade-two qualification but wish to obtain a grade-one qualification for second level teaching. Enrolment in these training programmes is minimal. In 1992 the numbers of students were as follows: Dutch 273 (scattered over six institutions), English 321 (six institutions), French 5 (one institution), German 78 (three institutions), Spanish 51 (two institutions) (Visitatiecommissie Deeltijdse Eerstegraadsopleiding voor de Algemene Vakken 1993). The review committee reached the conclusion that these part-time programmes for the most part have a marginal status and focus too exclusively on the degree subject, with little or no attention to educational matters. The committee also mentions that the link-up with the grade-one programmes provided by the universities is insufficient and that the ties with the professional field are not strong enough. In view of these findings it is to be expected that the part-time programmes for the grade-one qualification will be discontinued and the available funds reallocated.
The degree programme for primary school teachers is of four years' duration. Assessment is typically by coursework and examination. All courses include direct classroom practice, and a passing mark in class observation and teaching practice is essential for the award of the degree.
The training programme for secondary school teachers with a grade-two qualification consists of a four-year degree programme in one of the approved subjects for secondary schools, with educational subjects and out-of-school activities as part of the curriculum. Assessment is by coursework and examination, and includes both teaching practice and class observation.
The grade-one qualification for secondary school teachers offered by the universities is a one-year, full-time postgraduate programme, including a minimum of 120 hours of teaching practice. Assessment is by coursework and examination, and students must achieve a passing mark in the teaching practice.
The part-time programmes for the grade-one teaching qualification offered by polytechnics and colleges are of two to three years' duration. Assessment is by coursework and examination.
The expected number of Dutch students on ERASMUS exchanges involving education and teacher-training in 1994/95 is 465 (EC 1994:1032), which represents 10% of the mobility in this area and illustrates the important role that European cooperation programmes are beginning to play. The total number of approved ICPs in the area of education and teacher-training (subject code 5) is 118. In 56, a Dutch institution participates, for the greater part in areas 5.1 (teacher training) and 5.2 (primary education) (EC 1994:1053-1055). The most active institutions are the Hogeschool Gelderland in Arnhem, which takes part in 8 ICPs, and Rotterdam Polytechnic, which participates in 4 ICPs. On the whole, the polytechnics and colleges in the Netherlands appear to be more active in this area than the universities. Of the 56 ICPs with a Dutch participant, only 16 have one of the Dutch universities as a partner. The remaining 40 ICPs all involve a polytechnic or a college. This corresponds with the findings of the academic review committee which examined the grade-one teacher training programmes offered by the universities. The final report mentions that the impact of Community programmes is not very significant at this level and recommends that the European networks be given a more prominent role in the future (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Universitaire Lerarenopleiding 1992:29). This need not take the shape of a mobility scheme, as students in the postdoctoral teacher training programmes may have spent part of their undergraduate programme abroad through ERASMUS or LINGUA. Much more important in the committee's opinion is the development of a system of quality control which has a clear European dimension and allows for changes in the training programmes for the grade-one teaching qualification.
In-service training for language teachers, as for all other teachers, is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Science. The available budgets are allotted to the primary and secondary schools, which are expected to define their training needs and select one of the numerous institutions and associations as the supplier of in-service courses. The Dutch Modern Language Association (Levende Talen) plays a major role in the area of languages, often in collaboration with a college of education. Universities and polytechnics also provide in-service courses.
The in-service courses offered by the universities to language teachers include development programmes on language, literature and language pedagogy at both grade-one and grade-two level (Goethals 1994:74). The polytechnics and colleges of education provide such courses at grade-two level only, but offer in-service training to primary school teachers as well. According to the review committee, satisfaction among primary teachers is generally high, even though individual needs are often not taken into account (Visitatiecommissie Lerarenopleiding Basisonderwijs 1993). It is also reported that the quality of the courses varies, that the practical applicability is limited and that there is little or no relationship with initial training.
The in-service teacher training programmes offered by the universities received a more favourable evaluation. The academic review committee mentions that serious attempts are made to take the needs and wishes of secondary schools into account in order to provide tailor-made courses (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Universitaire Lerarenopleiding 1992:33).
In view of the limited possibilities of teacher substitution in the school, in-service courses tend to be short. They vary in length from a half-day to three or four days.
The major impact of Community programmes has been the provision of funding for teachers to follow courses in other European countries.
Although second language instruction is widely considered as a highly specialized type of educational activity that differs from both first and foreign language teaching, there are as yet no teacher training programmes or teacher qualifications for this profession (Extra 1990:65). In spite of an increasing impact of immigration and the emergence of ethnic minority groups in educational institutions over the last two decades, it took a long time before the Dutch government came to realize that the existence of ethnic group languages and the existence of Dutch as a second language would ask for a rethinking of traditional and hitherto unquestioned concepts in education (Extra 1990; Van Els 1990). This has at long last resulted in a plan to establish a part-time programme in Teaching Dutch as a Second Language with an associated certificate.
Although Frisian is taught to both native and non-native speakers of Frisian in the province of Friesland, as mentioned in Section 1.1.2, there are no provisions for teaching Frisian as a second language.
The part-time programme in Teaching Dutch as a Second Language will be open to students who have obtained a teaching qualification for Dutch or one of the modern languages. The course will focus on the similarities and differences between second and foreign language teaching, with much attention to different types of skills for different types of learners, the development of specialized course material and the production of proficiency tests for advanced learners. Theory of education, didactics, language pedagogy, and developmental and educational psychology will not be included, as these have been part of the required teacher training certificate.
The Certificate in Teaching Dutch as a Second Language will be a one-year, part-time programme to be provided by universities and institutions of higher professional education. Assessment will be by coursework and examination.
The recent introduction of programmes combining professionally oriented disciplines with language study has been a new development in higher education in the Netherlands. Outside the Arts degree, the University of Amsterdam and the University of Nijmegen offer two programmes in Communication which are rooted in the social sciences, but include an important language component as well. At Tilburg University a degree programme in Leisure Studies is available which has language study as an option.
The degrees mentioned in this section are all full-time programmes of four years' duration.
Programmes which combine a professionally oriented discipline with the study of a language have for the most part been introduced recently, and the possibility of studying abroad through ERASMUS exchanges has frequently been incorporated into the structure of the programme from the start.
Electives in languages, lasting at most half a year (21 credits), are available in all Dutch universities. Until recently, the number of such courses was very limited, but they are now increasing rapidly in relation to the overall number of students, the number of degree programmes involved and the range of languages offered. These courses are most common in Business Administration and Economics, but electives in languages have also been introduced for students of International Law, Educational Science, Pedagogics, Political Science and Sociology.
These courses are structured in such a variety of ways that it is difficult to discern any typical patterns. As a rule, the emphasis is on the development of language skills.
The number of students in Business Administration, Business Information Technology, and Marketing which are expected to participate in ERASMUS exchanges in 1994/95 is large. Of the 8,408 Dutch students which are involved in mobility programmes, in all 1,829 study a subject which belongs to the area of business and management science (subject code 4) (EC 1994:1032).
Within the field of comparative law and law with languages (subject code 10.1) 24 ICPs have been approved, 5 of which involve a Dutch university (EC 1994:1073-1074). The most active institution is Leiden University, which takes part in 3 ICPs.
There are four undergraduate programmes in the Netherlands which focus on the training of translators. The College of Higher Education in Maastricht provides a degree programme in Translation and Interpreting. Within the Liberal Arts programme offered by Utrecht University, which has been in operation since 1985, students may take Translation as an option. The University of Amsterdam offers a degree programme in Translation Studies which has a strong theoretical orientation, but includes practical aspects as well. Due to growing budgetary deficits this programme will be discontinued. Translation is also available as an option within the postpropaedeutic degree programme in Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities provided by the University of Groningen, which had its first intake in 1983.
The only institution which gives students the opportunity to carry out research in translation at postgraduate level is the University of Amsterdam. According to the academic review committee, the three assistants who are preparing a doctoral thesis must be classified as promising researchers (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:81).
Private training establishments include the Dutch Institute for the Training of Interpreters and Translators (ITV) in Utrecht and the Institute for Applied Social Sciences (ITS) in Nijmegen.
The aim of the degree programme in Translation and Interpeting offered by the College of Higher Education in Maastricht is to train professional translators and interpreters in the areas of economics, medical science, biology, law and technology. In addition to their native language, students study two languages, to be chosen from Dutch as a Foreign Language, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish. Courses in the theory and practice of translation, economics, medical science, biology, law and technology also form a significant part of the programme. At the end of the second year, a test assesses whether students are capable of taking the interpreters' option in the third and fourth year.
The degree in Translation Studies at the University of Amsterdam emphasizes the theoretical aspects of translation, in particular literary translation, but courses in translation practice, translation technology and language skills development are included as well. Students must choose two languages from Danish, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Norwegian, Russian, Spanish and Swedish.
At Utrecht University, Translation is an option within the degree in Liberal Arts. The programme is restricted to one foreign language, to be chosen from English, French, German, Portuguese and Spanish. The main emphasis is placed on the professional skills of translating, with attention to scientific texts. A project in criticism of translating also forms part of the programme.
The translation option within the degree in Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities at the University of Groningen includes literary translation as well. Language skills are given a prominent place in this programme and students must choose two languages from Danish, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Norwegian, Russian, Spanish and Swedish. Out-of-school activities include a work-experience task.
The programmes offered by the Dutch Institute for the Training of Interpreters and Translators (ITV) include a professional course in Interpreting and Translation, limited to one foreign language, which must be chosen from English, French, German and Spanish, and a professional course in Translation, with one foreign language to be chosen from English, French and German. A one-year refresher course in Interpreting and Translation, restricted to English and French, is provided by ITV as well.
The degree in Translation and Interpreting offered by the College of Higher Education in Maastricht is a four-year, full-time programme. Assessment is by coursework and examination. A number of work-experience tasks also form part of the programme. The Universities of Amsterdam and Groningen both offer three-year, full-time programmes, assessed by coursework and examination. At Utrecht University, the option of Translation within the degree in Liberal Arts is limited to a eightteen-months, full-time programme. Assessment is by coursework and examination. The Dutch Institute for the Training of Interpreters and Translators only provides evening classes. The professional courses in Interpreting and Translation and in Translation, both of which are completed with a government-controlled examination, are of three years' duration. Graduates are awarded the status of official interpreter/translator, a possibility which is also available to students who have completed the other programmes mentioned in this section.
ERASMUS and LINGUA exchanges are vital to the degree programme in Translation and Interpreting at the College of Higher Education in Maastricht. Half of the third year is spent abroad through 5 ICPs linking Maastricht with other universities involved in training translators and interpreters (EC 1994:1179). The only other two Dutch institutions which participate in an ICP involving translation and interpretation (subject code 9.4) are Utrecht University and the University of Nijmegen. Of the 28 ICPs in this area, as little as 4 have a Dutch partner. With the exception of the College of Higher Education in Maastricht, which is involved in 3 of these programmes, institutions of tertiary education in the Netherlands do not appear to be very active in the area of translation and interpretation.
In the opinion of the academic review committee, career prospects for translators are limited, even within the area of translating (VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren 1994:80). Graduates nevertheless appear to be reasonably successful in finding employment. More than 85% of the students with a degree in one of the programmes mentioned in this section acquire a position.
The institutions of higher professional education in the Netherlands offer language degree programmes in which the study of a language is combined with teacher training in order to prepare students for a career in secondary education. The content and objectives of these programmes and the nature of the teaching qualification have been described in Section 3.1. Historically, such language degrees used to be joint programmes, with the study of language as the major component and some other subject as a minor. The associated teaching qualification used to be a dual qualification, one for the degree subject and one for the minor.
In addition, Holland Polytechnic in Diemen offers a part-time degree in Business German which combines the study of German with an elementary core programme in Business. Part-time degrees in Business French are provided by Leeuwarden Polytechnic, Rotterdam Polytechnic, Hogeschool Katholieke Leergangen Sittard, Hogeschool Katholieke Leergangen Tilburg, Central Netherlands Polytechnic in Utrecht and Holland Polytechnic in Diemen.
The structure of the degree programmes which combine language study with teacher training has been described in Section 3.1. The part-time degrees in Business German and Business French are specializations that fall under the corresponding teacher training programmes. Assessment is by coursework and examination.
The role of Community programmes in this area has been described in Section 3.1.4.
Language studies are most in evidence in the 13 degree programmes in Business and Languages provided by Alkmaar Polytechnic, Amsterdam School of Business (part-time as well), Arnhem Business School, Holland Polytechnic in Diemen, Polytechnic Enschede, Hanzehogeschool Groningen, Polytechnic 's-Hertogenbosch (part-time as well), Leeuwarden Polytechnic, Christian College "Ichthus" in Rotterdam, Rotterdam College for Economics and Business Administration, HES (International School of Economics Rotterdam, ISER), Limburg Business College in Sittard, Hogeschool Utrecht (only part-time) and Zeeland Polytechnic in Vlissingen. These programmes aim to give students a foundation for a career in business or industry and the languages offered are mostly English, French and German, although Spanish is also available in some institutions. The study of two languages is the norm.
In addition to these, languages are included in programmes which specialize in Tourism and Recreation (Netherlands Institute for Tourism and Transport Studies in Breda) and Leisure Studies (Netherlands Institute of Tourism and Transport Studies and CHN North Netherlands in Leeuwarden). At the Haagse Hogeschool a full-time programme in European Studies is available. Students focus on the history, politics and sociology of Europe and its institutions, and must study one modern language as a major component of the degree. Languages also form part of the three full-time programmes in Hotel Management offered by the Hotel School The Hague (Institute of Hospitality Management), CHN North Netherlands in Leeuwarden and the School for Hotel Management Maastricht.
A degree in Communication Studies is provided by the Hogeschool van Amsterdam (only part-time), Hogeschool Eindhoven, Institute of Higher Professional Education (both full-time and part-time), Hogeschool Utrecht (only part-time), Institute for Economics and Management Studies in Utrecht and Zeeland Polytechnic in Vlissingen. These programmes aim to produce graduates capable of pursuing careers in which language skills are essential. In addition to a core programme in Communication Science, students study a modern language throughout the course.
The degree programmes mentioned in this section are all offered by institutions of higher professional education. They are of four years' duration and generally have the structure of a single programme, with a fixed set of required courses in the first two year and a growing degree of specialization combined with a considerable amount of practical training in the second and third years. During the fourth year the emphasis is on independent work. In general students have to write a major term paper and prepare a final project, both of which draw upon the practical experience gained. In some programmes the fourth year is the time when students are able to gain more diversity through electives, while in others it is the most specialized of all. Assessment is by coursework and examination, and students must achieve passing marks in the practicals. Graduates are awarded the Certificate of Higher Professional Education (Getuigschrift Hoger Beroepsonderwijs).
Of the 13 institutions of higher professional education which offer a programme in Business and Languages, in all 6 have entered an ICP in the area of business studies with languages (subject code 4.1), Arnhem Business School (3 ICPs) and the Hanzehogeschool Groningen (2 ICPs) being the most active ones. Within the area of tourism, catering and hotel management (subject code 4.4) the Netherlands Institute of Tourism and Transport Studies (Breda) takes part in 3 ICPs and CHN North Netherlands (Leeuwarden) in 2 ICPs. The Haagse Hogeschool participates in an ICP in the area of international relations, European studies and area studies (subject code 14.6). Of the 5 institutions which provide a degree in Communication Studies, Hogeschool Eindhoven is the only one which has entered an ICP.
Several of the needs to be described have been identified by the review committees set up by Dutch institutions of higher education and the Task Forces called into existence by the Ministry of Education and Science. Under the Higher Education and Research Act, educational institutions are deemed to be self-regulating as far as quality and quality control are concerned. This implies that they are not only responsible for the degree programmes they offer, but also for assessing and monitoring quality. They are free to decide what form quality control should take as long as they adhere to the statutory requirements regarding procedure. There are no uniform requirements concerning content. Internal evaluation should take place every year, and an integral inspection by an external review committee should be conducted once every five or six years.
Although the traditional undergraduate language degree programmes are long established and all focus on the development of language skills as a means of access to another culture, they are succesfully modernizing, both in content and in structure. This process should be supported, particularly through the establishment of study abroad as a fundamental part of a language degree (Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren 1993:67-88).
The quality of the new Arts degree programmes varies, some having more content than others. The level of interdisciplinary synthesis which is necessary to guarantee sufficient scientific depth has not always been reached yet. Several new degree programmes suffer from a heterogeneous propaedeutic intake and some have become so popular that they are confronted with the attendant problems of massiveness. Attempts should be made to improve this situation.
In making the allocation of institutional budgets mainly dependent on student numbers, the Dutch government has introduced a pseudo-market mechanism which rewards populous programmes and punishes less popular ones. One of the unforeseen effects of the system has been that a number of traditional disciplines, including German, the Scandinavian languages, Frisian, Finnish and Old Germanic, have been confronted with diminishing faculty and loss of specializations. Particularly illustrative in this respect are the provisions for German, which have been badly damaged in recent years. An attempt should be made to improve this situation.
The Committee on the Future of the Humanities refers to the new Arts degrees as S-programmes and opposes them to the traditional Arts degrees, which are called T-programmes. This distinction is made because S-programmes, inasmuch as they conform to the market and adapt to the consumptive choices of individual students, are not considered to belong to the public mission of the Humanities. The committee fears that the S-programmes, which attract thousands of students and prepare them for positions which are now often occupied by graduates from higher vocational schools or other academic sectors, will push aside the less populous traditional T-programmes. In order to prevent this, a number of measures are proposed, including a sharp organizational distinction between S-programmes and T-programmes, assignment of more favourable staff-student ratios to T-programmes, and the introduction of a separate system of budget financing for T-programmes instead of the present allocation mechanism based on student numbers. In addition, the educational tasks of the Open University should be transferred to the six classical universities.
There is a curious gap between secondary education and the universities. Complaints about students' lack of writing ability and their insufficient understanding of grammatical structure have never lead to an attempt to discuss such matters with representatives of secondary education. For this reason a liaison committee should be called into existence whose task is to find ways of improving the link-up between secondary school and university. With a view to tightening up admission requirements, a comparative investigation of the entrance level of different groups of secondary school graduates should also be made.
Holders of the doctorate should be admitted to the postgraduate teacher training programmes in order to obtain the grade-one qualification for secondary education. Since the sixties teachers with a doctor's degree have become a rare phenomenon in university preparatory schools, which may explain why freshmen often have an incomplete image of the objectives of degree programmes in higher education. To improve this situation half of the secondary school teachers should be recruited from holders of a doctor's degree. Such a measure may well contribute to improving the link-up between secondary education and the universities and change pupils' attitude towards science and scholarship.
Both in the area of languages and philological sciences and in the area of Lingua, the group of Dutch exchange students is proportionally smaller than the corresponding groups in the other EU and EFTA countries. It must be concluded that institutions of higher education in the Netherlands are not particularly active in these two fields. An attempt should be made to improve the situation. This is particularly urgent in view of Van Essen's (1990:83) ominous phrase: "The Dutch used to be proud of their foreign-language education".
Information provided by the European Union, the Council of Europe and UNESCO indicates that it is safe to say that the English and Irish Master's degrees are on a par with the Dutch doctoraal, the French maŒtrise and the German Diplom. For this reason, the Master's degree should be considered an undergraduate degree in Europe.
The success of the Annual European Summer School in Logic, Language and Information, an intensive two-week programme which has been organized six times since its beginning in 1989 and which provides for over 500 students, research assistants and faculty members to take part in the 80 courses which are offered, shows that postgraduate education should be coordinated at the European level as well.
A process of establishing officially recognized graduate schools whose task it is to streamline and improve postgraduate education should be initiated in Europe. This will not only help to identify excellent research, but also stimulates cooperation at a national level, as shown by the three Dutch schools which operate in the area language studies and linguistics.
During the last two years of primary education, English is a required course for pupils. Though primary school teachers may have to teach this subject, no official qualification over and above their teacher's certificate is required. Thus a language teacher at this level may have received insufficient training in the language to be taught and no training at all in language pedagogy. In order to improve the situation, primary school teachers in the higher grades should be obliged to obtain a certificate in Teaching English as a Foreign Language.
Training programmes for primary teachers pay too little attention to the problem of cultural minorities and underpriviliged groups in the Netherlands. The various aspects of this subject are not treated very thoroughly, with too much emphasis on pupils of Turkish or Moroccan origin. In general, the relationship between cultural background, social setting and learning problems remains underexposed, as does the subject of second language acquisition. Inasmuch as the Netherlands grows closer to becoming a multicultural society, it is important that programmes for primary school teachers give attention to these matters. As emphasized by the Primary Education Act (Wet op het Basisonderwijs) of 1985, educational programmes should reflect the fact that children are living in a multicultural society.
Although second language instruction is widely considered as a highly specialized type of educational activity that differs from both first and foreign language teaching, there are as yet no teacher training programmes or teacher qualifications for this profession. A part-time programme in Teaching Dutch as a Second Language should be established which enables students with a teaching qualification to obtain an additional certificate.
The part-time programmes for the grade-one teaching qualification offered by institutions of higher professional education have a marginal status and focus too exclusively on the degree subject, with little or no attention to educational matters. The link-up with the grade-one programmes provided by the universities is insufficient and the ties with the professional field are not strong enough. For these reasons the part-time programmes for the grade-one qualification should be discontinued and the available funds reallocated to the universities which provide the full-time programmes for the grade-one qualification.
The fact that German has become one of the subjects with a shortage of secondary school teachers shows that the system has not been able to respond quickly to changing needs. Between 1987 and 1991 the number of students wishing to achieve the grade-one qualification in German declined so rapidly that German is since 1992 on a par with Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry - subjects which are also characterized by a shortage of secondary teachers. A system should be created which permits the number of teachers entering the profession with appropriate qualifications to be monitored more closely and assists serving teachers who wish to retrain.
The quality of in-service courses for primary school teachers varies, the practical applicability is limited and there is little or no relationship with initial training. Although satisfaction among primary teachers is generally high, individual needs are often not taken into account. In view of the importance of in-service training, the institutions of higher professional education should attempt to improve existing provisions. A good example are the in-service teacher training programmes offered by the universities in which serious attempts are made to take the needs and wishes of secondary schools into account in order to provide tailor-made courses.
The impact of Community programmes on the grade-one teacher training programmes offered by the universities is not significant. In the future, the European networks should be given a more prominent place. This need not take the shape of a mobility scheme, as students in the postdoctoral teacher training programmes may have spent part of their undergraduate programme abroad through ERASMUS or LINGUA. Much more important is the development of a system of quality control which has a clear European dimension and allows for changes in the training programmes for the grade-one teaching qualification.
The major success in this area has been the introduction of electives in languages, lasting at most half a year (21 credits), in all Dutch universities. Until recently, the number of such courses was very limited, but they are now increasing rapidly in relation to the overall number of students, the number of degree programmes involved and the range of languages offered. These courses are most common in Business Administration and Economics, but electives in languages have also been introduced for students of International Law, Educational Science, Pedagogics, Political Science and Sociology. There is a need for this provision to be extended to the fields of science and engineering and technology.
Because electives generally play a marginal role in the Dutch allocation system, the provision of service courses has not been accompanied by a proportionate increase in faculty and support staff. In most departments such teaching is carried out by part-time lecturers with no career structure. An attempt should be made to improve this situation.
In view of the existence of succesful joint programmes in Law and Language and Computer Science and Language elsewhere, the introduction of such degrees in th Netherlands should be considered.
Due to growing budgetary deficits the degree programme in Translation Studies provided by the University of Amsterdam will be discontinued. As Utrecht University offers only a eighteen-months course and the University of Groningen intends to reduce its current three-year programme to a one-year course, Translation may well disappear as an academic discipline in the Netherlands. An attempt should be made to prevent this unfortunate situation and keep one full-fledged academic undergraduate programme, in addition to the professionally oriented programme provided by the College of Higher Education in Maastricht. Facilities should be sufficient to give students the opportunity to carry out research at postgraduate level.
It should be investigated whether there is a need for refresher courses in the area of translation and interpretation.
With the exception of the College of Higher Education in Maastricht, institutions of tertiary education in the Netherlands are not very active in the area of translation and interpretation. An attempt should be made to improve this situation.
See Section 7.2.1.
Language degree programmes in which the study of a language is combined with teacher training in order to prepare students for a career in secondary education should remain single programmes and should not be turned into joint programmes with a dual qualification, as recently proposed by the Association of Dutch Polytechnics and Colleges.
See Section 7.2.3.
The major success in this area has been the development of programmes in Business and Languages, which combine the study of one or two languages with a core programme in Business Administration. The degrees in Tourism and Recreation, Leisure Studies, Hotel Management and Communication Studies include language study as well. In the area of engineering and technology, however, language options are virtually nonexistent. There is a need for provisions to be made in this field.
Constraints on staffing and other resources play a dominant role in this area as well. An attempt should be made to improve this situation.
Extension of language study to other areas will assist in the process of European integration.
Training programmes for primary teachers pay too little attention to the problem of cultural minorities and underpriviliged groups in the Netherlands.
Institutions of higher professional education should attempt to improve existing provisions.
Inasmuch as primary teachers will have to teach English during the last two years of primary education, a certificate in Teaching English as a Foreign Language should be part of the requirements to be fulfilled.
A part-time programme in Teaching Dutch as a Second Language should be established which enables students with a teaching qualification to obtain a certificate in this specialized educational activity.
The part-time programmes for the grade-one qualification should be discontinued and the available funds reallocated to the universities which provide the full-time programmes for the grade-one qualification.
A system should be created which permits the number of teachers entering the profession with appropriate qualifications to be monitored more closely and assists serving teachers who wish to retrain.
A system of quality control should be developed which has a clear European dimension and allows for changes in teacher training programmes.
The quality of the new Arts degree programmes should be examined thoroughly. In addition, an attempt should be made to restore the provisions for German.
A sharp organizational distinction between S-programmes and T-programmes should be made.
A liaison committee should be called into existence whose task is to find ways of improving the link-up between secondary school and university. With a view to tightening up admission requirements, a comparative investigation of the entrance level of different groups of secondary school graduates should also be made.
Institutions of higher education in the Netherlands should become more active in in the areas of languages and philological sciences and LINGUA.
The Association of Cooperating Universities in the Netherlands should make an effort to keep one full-fledged undergraduate programme in Translation Studies. Facilities should be sufficient to give students the opportunity to carry out research at postgraduate level.
T-programmes should be assigned more favourable staff-student ratios and a separate system of budget financing for T-programmes should be introduced.
The educational tasks of the Open University should be transferred to the six classical universities.
Holders of the doctorate should be admitted to the postgraduate teacher training programmes in order to obtain the grade-one qualification for secondary education.
Study abroad should be a fundamental part of a language degree.
The Master's degree should be considered an undergraduate degree in Europe and postgraduate education should be coordinated at a European level.
A process of establishing officially recognized graduate schools whose task it is to streamline and improve postgraduate education should be initiated in Europe.
An extension of the provision of language options to areas other than Business, Tourism and Recreation, Leisure Studies, Hotel Management and Communication Studies should be considered. Within the areas of health care and engineering and technology such measures may well assist in the process of European integration.
Language degree programmes in which the study of a language is combined with teacher training in order to prepare students for a career in secondary education should not be turned into joint programmes with a dual teaching qualification, as recently proposed by the Association of Dutch Polytechnics and Colleges.
See Section 8.1.3.
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek [Central Office of Statistics], Minderheden in Nederland: statistisch vademecum [Minorities in the Netherlands: statistical handbook], Afl. 7 (1993/1994), in samenwerking met het Instituut voor Sociologisch-Economisch Onderzoek, Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam [in cooperation with the Institute of Social and Economic Research, Erasmus University, Rotterdam], 's-Gravenhage: SDU/CBS-Publikaties, 1994.
Commissie Toekomst van de Geesteswetenschappen [Committee on the Future of the Humanities], Men weegt Kaneel bij 't lood [One weighs Cinnamon by the decagram], Utrecht: Commissie Toekomst van de Geesteswetenschappen, 1995.
EC, Erasmus and Lingua Action II - Directory 1994/95, European Commission, Luxembourg: Office des publications officielles des Communaut‚s europ‚ennes, 1994.
Edelenbos, P., Evaluatie engels in het basisonderwijs [English in the primary school: An evaluation], Groningen: RION, Instituut voor Onderwijsonderzoek, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, 1988.
Extra, G., "Ethnic Minorities, Language Diversity, and Educational Implications. A Case Study on the Netherlands", Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen, vol. 36, pp. 45-71, 1990.
Goethals, M., Towards a European Accreditation System for Foreign Language Teachers, Final Report, LINGUA project No. 93-02/0890/B-VA (1-1-93 - 31-12-93), Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1994.
Nuffic, Higher Education in the Netherlands, 3rd ed., The Hague: Nuffic, Netherlands organization for international cooperation in higher education, 1993.
Nederlandse Taalunie [Dutch Language Union], De Nederlandse Taalunie, wat zij is en doet [The Dutch Language Union: Aims and Activities], 's-Gravenhage: Nederlandse Taalunie, 1990.
Nederlandse Taalunie [Dutch Language Union], Een Veel te Bescheiden Viooltje: De Nederlandse Taalunie 1986-1990 [A Much too Modest Violet: The Dutch Language Union 1986-1990], 's-Gravenhage: De Nederlandse Taalunie, 1991.
Province of Friesland, The Frisian Language, 3rd ed., Leeuwarden: Province of Friesland, 1993.
Van Els, T., "Policy-Making in Foreign Language Teaching", Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen, vol. 36, pp. 86-99, 1990.
Van Essen, A.J., "Three Decades of Foreign-Language Teaching in the Netherlands", Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen, vol. 36, pp. 72-85, 1990.
Van der Tuin, P., A.J. van Essen, and E. Volkerts, Enkele aanwijzingen omtrent de leerresultaten na ca. 3 jaar m.v.t.o. in Nederland [Some indications as to the level of achievement after about 3 years of training in a foreign language at secondary schools], Enschede/Groningen: SLO [National Institute for Curriculum Development]/ITT [Institute of Applied Linguistics], 1986.
Verkenningscommissie Moderne Letteren [Task Force for Modern Language Studies], De Moderne Letteren in Nederland [Modern Language Studies in the Netherlands], Den Haag: Ministerie van Onderwijs en Wetenschappen [Ministry of Education and Science], 1993.
Visitatiecommissie Lerarenopleiding Basisonderwijs [Review Committee for Training Programmes for Primary Teachers], Bekwaamheid aan de basis: eindrapport [Ability at the basis: final report], Den Haag: Voorlichtingsdienst HBO-Raad, 1993.
Visitatiecommissie Deeltijdse Eerstegraadsopleiding voor de Algemene Vakken [Review Committee for the Part-Time Grade-One Qualification in General Secondary School Subjects], Eindrapport [Final report], Den Haag: Voorlichtingsdienst HBO-Raad, 1993.
VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Experimentele Letteren [Academic Review Committee for Experimental Arts Degrees], Nieuwe Letterenopleidingen [New Degree Programmes in the Humanities], Utrecht: VSNU - Vereniging van Samenwerkende Nederlandse Universiteiten [Association of Cooperating Universities in the Netherlands], 1994.
VSNU-Visitatiecommissie Universitaire Lerarenopleiding [Academic Review Committee for Teacher Training Programmes at the Universities], Universitaire Lerarenopleiding [Teacher Training Programmes at the Universities], Utrecht: Vereniging van Samenwerkende Nederlandse Universiteiten [Association of Cooperating Universities in the Netherlands], 1992.
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