|
|
|
|
|
|
SIGMA Scientific Committee on Languages |
Angela Chambers
Department of Languages and Cultural
Studies,
University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
According to the Irish Constitution (Bunreacht na hEireann), the Irish language, An Gaeilge, is the first official language, and English is recognised as the second official language. However, English is the mother tongue and language of daily use of the vast majority of the population. Irish is spoken as an everyday language in areas known as the Gaeltacht, mostly situated along the western seaboard. Native speakers in these areas number approximately 55,000.
During the compulsory period of education (6-15 years of age) pupils must study two languages, Irish and English. Outside the Gaeltacht the language of instruction is mostly English, except in "all Irish" schools, Gaelscoileanna, in which subjects are taught through the medium of Irish. University education is also delivered through English, although University College, Galway, has a special responsibility for the Irish language and provides courses in some programmes through Irish. Dublin City University has also recently introduced a degree programme in Finance and Computing which is delivered through Irish.
Minorities in Ireland as a result of immigration represent a very small proportion of the population. 4,123 children of non-English speaking parents attended school in Ireland in 1992, 1,812 children of immigrants from EU countries and 2,311 children of immigrants from non-EU countries. The largest group is German-speaking (543). Schools catering for these minorities, all located in or near Dublin, include provision for speakers of French, German, Spanish, Japanese, Hebrew and Arabic.
In the early years of the State, language policy was based on the replacement of English by Irish as the language of daily use. However, since 1960 the emphasis has shifted, and current policy aims to promote bilingualism. The maintenance and development of the position of Irish in the educational system is the principal means by which this policy is implemented. Special assistance to the Gaeltacht areas and developments in the use of Irish in the media also play an important role.
Higher education is provided for the most part by universities, Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs), the Dublin Institute of Technology and Colleges of Education, which are funded mostly by the State. A number of private colleges also offer degree programmes, which may be validated by the National Council for Educational Awards (NCEA), by professional organisations or by universities outside the State, mostly in the United Kingdom.
There are four universities in Ireland, the oldest of which is the University of Dublin. It has one constituent college, Trinity College, Dublin (TCD). The National University of Ireland (NUI) has four constituent colleges, University College, Cork (UCC), University College, Dublin (UCD), University College, Galway (UCG) and St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, which have a considerable degree of autonomy. St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, also houses the Pontifical University and a National Seminary, which are outside State control. Ireland also has two new universities, the University of Limerick (UL) and Dublin City University (DCU). Established as National Institutes of Higher Education in 1972 and 1980 respectively, they were awarded university status in 1989. Certificate, diploma and degree programmes in Engineering, Science, Business, the Arts and Humanities are offered in the Dublin Institute of Technology and in eleven Regional Technical Colleges.
Colleges of Education offer degrees for teachers at primary level and for second level teachers in some areas. In two colleges Arts degrees have recently been introduced. All these colleges are linked officially with universities, which are the awarding bodies for the degrees.
Admission to degree programmes usually depends on performance in the Leaving Certificate, an examination in six, seven or eight subjects taken at the end of second level education. Students who fulfil the minimum requirements have no automatic right to admission, and places are allocated on a points system based on the results through the Central Applications Office and the Central Admissions Services.
Higher education has seen rapid expansion in the course of the last thirty years. Full-time enrolments have risen from 21,000 in 1965 to 89,500 in 1994. The establishment of the new universities and the Regional Technical Colleges has increased the proportion of degree programmes in Business Studies, Engineering and Science, as well as reducing the geographic disadvantage of many students. During the same period there has also been considerable growth in the older universities, mostly in Business Studies and Technology, but also in the Humanities.
The first degree or Bachelor's Degree in Arts, Humanities, Law and Business is generally of three years' duration in the National University of Ireland and of four years' duration at DCU, TCD and UL. However, a number of four-year programmes, including a year of study abroad, have been introduced recently in Colleges of the NUI. In the new universities a period of work or study abroad is a compulsory element of degree programmes. The duration of Bachelor's degree programmes in Engineering and Science is four years.
Traditionally undergraduate degree programmes were of two types, general degrees and, at a more advanced and specialized level, honours degrees. However, it is now common for all students to follow the same programme and for the degree to be classified on a scale such as the following: First Class Honours; Second Class Honours, division one, also described as upper second or 2.1; Second Class Honours, division two, also described as lower second or 2.2; Third Class Honours; and Pass Degree (where the student has passed the examinations, but not at honours standard).
Postgraduate programmes are of four types:
Postgraduate diplomas are one-year, taught programmes which provide graduates in other disciplines with competence in a new area. Taught Master's programmes generally require one or two years of study after the Bachelor's degree. The Master's degree by research requires a minimum of two years of study, and the degree of Doctor of Philosophy requires a further two or three years of study after the Master's degree. Alternatively, a research student may in some cases proceed to the preparation of a major thesis for the degree of PhD without obtaining a Master's degree. A viva voce examination, in which the student is examined on the thesis by a number of academics from the university and an external assessor, may be held for the award of Master's degrees and is always held for the award of doctoral degrees.
The structure of the academic year has traditionally consisted of three terms, with examinations at the end of the academic year, but several universities are in the process of introducing a semester-based system, as well as module-based programmes of study.
Students generally enter university at the age of 17 or 18, after 13 years' schooling (eight at primary level and five at second level). While developments at second level are likely to extend the cycle by one year, Irish students will still be characterised by their youth. Only 10 per cent of full-time students enrolled in 1992 in institutions designated by the Higher Education Authority were over 24 years old.
In 1992 about 12% of students in these institutions were postgraduates, including those on the teacher training programme, the Higher Diploma in Education. In the Green Paper on Education further expansion of postgraduate research, particularly in the areas of science and technology, is recommended.
The teaching of foreign languages is mainly the responsibility of second level schools. The introduction of a foreign language at primary level is being given serious consideration (McCarthy, 1993), although it is felt by many that it would overload the curriculum, as two languages, Irish and English, are already studied. A small number of primary schools provide foreign language courses. In many other schools language courses, mostly in French, are provided after school as an optional weekly class on payment of a fee.
Foreign language teaching at second level is in a period of transition, with important developments both in the syllabus and in the numbers of pupils involved. Programmes in languages for the Junior Certificate (an examination which is taken at the end of the third year of study) have recently been revised, and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment has included the four European languages (French, German, Spanish and Italian) in the first phase of its syllabus revision at Leaving Certificate level. A new Leaving Certificate Applied Programme in languages has also been developed.
At second level foreign language study is not obligatory, but almost all schools offer one language, and many offer two. French is the most popular, followed by German, which has seen rapid growth in popularity in the last decade. Spanish is offered in a relatively small number of schools and Italian in very few schools. The numbers of pupils taking languages to higher level in the Leaving Certificate in 1993 are as follows: French 16,176, Irish 12,213, German 5,354, Spanish 753 and Italian 80. It is important to note that, while the existing curricular framework encourages the study of one foreign language at second level, it does not facilitate the study of two, and thus the study of one language in addition to English and Irish tends to be the norm (Ruane, 1990:4).
While all four language skills, reading, writing, speaking and listening, are developed in the Leaving Certificate syllabus, recent developments have placed greater emphasis on aural comprehension and oral skills. This reflects the popularity of the communicative approach to language learning, and has the advantage of ensuring that most pupils acquire basic communicative skills. However, students achieving the lower pass grades, even at higher level, may enter university without a firm grounding in the basic grammatical structures of the language. This situation exerts a determining influence on the university syllabus, particularly in the first year of study.
There is considerable variation in the starting level of language courses in Irish universities. As Irish is taught in all schools and French in almost all schools at second level, degree programmes in these languages are offered only at post-Leaving Certificate level. German is usually offered at this level, but also at beginners' level in several programmes. Spanish and Italian are offered at either post-Leaving Certificate level or ab initio. All other languages are studied ab initio. In programmes combining two languages, it is usual for students to be permitted to take only one language from beginners' level. In most courses the level at graduation is the same for students who had studied the language at second level and those who started studying the language at university.
The profile of language students in higher education illustrates the gender imbalance which is evident in many university courses. Just as the vast majority of students in Engineering and Science are male, so also students of languages are predominantly female. (See for example the career statistics in Sections 2.4 and 5.5.)
Degree programmes combining the acquisition of language skills with the study of the appropriate literary tradition are offered by all Irish university institutions. At the older universities such programmes are long established, while in the two new universities, Dublin City University and the University of Limerick, they were introduced in the early nineteen-nineties and are located in St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra, Dublin, and Mary Immaculate College of Education, Limerick.
The aims and objectives of these programmes may be defined within the tradition of liberal education. The development of language skills is seen as a means of access to another culture, and the student studies the literary tradition of that culture in order to understand it more fully and, in the process, to develop analytical skills which will be of use in the student's life and career.
Irish and French are available in all Arts degree programmes, and German and Spanish are commonly offered. French is the most popular language, although numbers taking German have increased in the last five years. Italian and Russian are studied in only a small number of universities. Full degree programmes are not available in any other language, although students following a language programme may be offered courses in a cognate language. Danish, Dutch and Swedish are available as options within one degree programme in Germanic languages (TCD). Dutch is also offered to students of German at UCD. Modern Greek is available as a minor option within a degree programme in Classical Greek. Catalan language and literature may be studied by students of Spanish at UCC, and Portuguese may be taken as an option within several degree programmes in Spanish. Students specialising in Russian may choose Polish as an option (TCD). An Arts degree programme including Icelandic is available in UCD, but it is not guaranteed that it will be offered each academic year. It includes the study of Old and Modern Icelandic and the literature and history of the language. A course in the Swedish language is available as part of this programme.
Irish
In addition to developing language skills, degree programmes in Irish cover the language, literature and culture of Ireland from the earliest period for which records are extant to the present. These programmes are taught through the medium of the Irish language. The language, literature and culture of other Celtic societies, in Scotland, Wales and Brittany, may also be included. Related to the study of Irish in many universities is Léann Dúchais or Irish Cultural Studies, and studies in Folklore are also commonly available. In the early nineteen-eighties, the number of students taking a degree in Irish declined, but student numbers are now showing an upward trend.
Other languages
Arts degree programmes in languages include language study to degree level, together with the study of literature, culture and, in some cases, historical linguistics. In some universities the literary studies cover the period from the Middle Ages to the present, while other courses concentrate on the period from the seventeenth century onwards. Literary courses may be delivered through the language or through English, depending on the preference of individual lecturers and the policy of the department.
While Arts degrees in languages continue to focus on literary studies, several trends can be observed in their development since the nineteen-sixties. Literary studies have tended to focus on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The definition of modern language studies has also broadened to include the study of culture and society. Cinema, politics since 1945, and contemporary social issues are examples of areas of study available to students in addition to literature. The area studied has also been widened. For example, French Studies have taken account of developments in the post colonial period, and a number of universities offer courses in the literature of Francophone countries including Canada, Francophone Africa and the Caribbean. German studies include the former East Germany, Austria, Switzerland and immigrant communities in Germany. Degree programmes in Spanish include the literature, culture and society of Spanish America.
It is difficult to provide information on the proportion of students' time devoted to literature, linguistics and the study of society, as students are offered a considerable degree of choice on most courses.
Important developments have also taken place in the language component of these degree programmes. Alongside, and in some cases replacing the traditional prose and translation classes, there is a much greater emphasis on the development of communicative and cross cultural skills. Courses on linguistics may be included, and there is an increasing emphasis on language awareness and autonomous learning skills. These developments have been supported through the modernisation of audio-visual facilities including satellite broadcasting and Computer Assisted Language Learning. Finally there is evidence of an increasing awareness of the importance of the professional use of the language, and students may, as part of the Arts degree, have the opportunity to study language for business or professional translation. However, all the language degree programmes retain an essentially literary focus within the tradition of liberal Arts education.
The Arts degree in Ireland is of three or four years' duration. Traditionally it has been of three years' duration in UCC, UCD, UCG and St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, and of four years' duration at TCD. This pattern continues to exist, but the four-year degree is becoming more common. The new Arts degree in Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, for example, is a four-year degree programme with the third year spent working or studying abroad. Four-year programmes including a year of study abroad have also been introduced at UCC and UCG.
Arts degrees are generally structured as single or joint programmes. After studying three or four subjects in first year, a student may choose to specialise in one subject, with another discipline as a minor subject. In addition, a number of programmes offer combinations of cognate subjects, for example the BA in Celtic Studies (UCD) and the BA in Germanic Languages (TCD).
Most language students now choose joint degree programmes, and the structure is similar in most universities. Students study three or four subjects in the first year, and then choose two subjects for the second and final years of study, which may be two languages, or one language with another discipline Arts discipline. Language study generally consists of three or four hours per week, with opportunities for additional self access study. In the recently introduced four-year degree programmes the third year is spent abroad. The structure of the Arts degree in TCD is different, in that two subjects are chosen from the beginning of the first year and are studied throughout the four years of the programme. Alternatively a student may choose to study only one subject in the fourth year. While this degree has traditionally been of four years' duration, in recent years it has become more common for language students to spend a term or a year abroad, usually in the third year. Assessment in all these degree programmes is by course work and examination, with a pass in the final year language examination normally necessary for the award of the degree.
The vast majority of Arts students are full-time students. However, in three universities (UCC, UCD, UCG), the Arts degree is also offered in the evening for part-time students. The whole range of languages and courses in literature, culture and society is not available, but it is possible to follow an Arts degree programme by this mode in French, German and, from 1995, Italian.
A number of universities offer the possibility of a graduate adding an extra subject to his or her degree by attending the appropriate courses as a part-time student over a period of three or four years.
This mode is commonly chosen by qualified teachers wishing to obtain a qualification as a teacher of a language, particularly German, in response to the growth in the numbers of pupils taking a language at second level.
The estimated numbers of students on ERASMUS exchanges involving Ireland in 1994 (according to the Annual Report for the ERASMUS Programme for 1993) illustrate the important role that such exchanges now play (France 615, Germany 524, Spain 249, Belgium 191 and Italy 145). These figures reveal that the numbers of Irish students planning to study abroad represents a more significant proportion of the population than in many other EU states. As Arts degrees still account for the majority of language students, it is in this context that the impact of ERASMUS exchanges is most evident.
As a result of these exchanges it is becoming the norm for language students to spend a year, or part of a year, studying in a country where that language is spoken. This is one of the most important developments in higher education in modern language studies in Ireland in the last decade. It is still too early to judge the success of the new four-year degree programmes, but it seems likely that four years of study will soon become established as the standard length of language degree programmes. Thus, by encouraging the lengthening and internationalisation of degree programmes, ERASMUS will have fundamentally altered and improved the structure of higher education in modern languages in Ireland.
A secondary but important effect of European exchanges is the impact the incoming foreign students have on Irish universities. Ireland is now a very popular destination for students from non-English speaking countries and their presence makes it easier for Irish students to become acquainted with native speakers of the language which they are studying and to learn about the culture of the country.
Faculty exchanges also have an impact, both in enabling faculty from partner institutions to lecture to Irish students and in providing Irish university lecturers with regular contacts with their counterparts in partner institutions.
In the past twenty years modern language studies have developed in combination with areas other than literary studies. Two types of development may be distinguished.
Three Universities offer degrees in European Studies (TCD, UCC, UL).
There are two degree programmes in Applied Languages in the State, the BA in Applied Languages (Translation with Interpreting) at DCU, which focuses on translation and is therefore included in Section 5, and the BA in Applied Languages at UL. This programme aims to prepare students for careers in which language skills are essential. Two languages are chosen, from French, German and Spanish, and studied throughout the course, in addition to the culture and society of the countries in which the languages are spoken. Translation is included throughout the course, and translation theory is studied in the third and fourth years. The core programme also includes components in linguistics and computer applications in modern languages. Electives include Marketing, Politics and International Relations or a third language (French, German, Irish, or Spanish). These electives are studied throughout the programme. Two-year elective streams are also offered in Japanese, Technical Writing and Teaching English as a Foreign Language.
The degree programmes in European Studies are of four years' duration. In UCC and TCD the third year is spent studying at a university abroad. At UL the fourth and seventh semesters are spent either working or studying outside the university. All students spend at least one semester working or studying in a country in which the language which they are studying is spoken. Those specialising in two languages will normally spend both semesters abroad. On all these degree programmes assessment is by course work and examination, and a pass in the language component is normally required for the award of the degree.
The BA in Applied Languages (UL) is a four-year programme, including two periods of work or study abroad in the fourth and seventh semesters. Assessment is by course work and examination at the end of each semester, and students must pass the final oral examination in order to graduate.
Study abroad is an integral part of degrees in European Studies and Applied Languages. ERASMUS exchanges are vital to the successful operation of these programmes, and in some cases the existence of ERASMUS has played an important role in their development. (See Section 2.1.3).
Traditional language and literature programmes
Postgraduate diplomas are popular in a number of areas, particularly in Irish and Celtic studies at UCC, which offers a diploma in Irish Language and Literature, and at UCD, where several programmes are offered, including a Diploma in the Linguistics and Teaching of Irish.
Taught Master's programmes in modern languages within the Arts tradition are offered at most Irish universities (TCD, UCC, UCD, UCG and St. Patrick's College, Maynooth) in areas such as Irish, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Welsh. Programmes generally cover the language, literature and culture of the relevant countries from the Middle Ages to the present, allowing students a choice of courses corresponding to their particular interests. In general Master's programmes are more firmly focused on literary studies than undergraduate programmes, although there is some evidence of a broadening of the curriculum beyond national barriers and beyond the traditional boundaries of studies in language and literature. Thus a programme in French may include an area such as French-Canadian literature. On the MA in German (UCD) students may specialise in literary studies or in the teaching of German as a foreign language. As at undergraduate level, cognate languages may be included alongside the major languages in programmes such as the Master's in Spanish with Catalan or Spanish with Portuguese (UCC).
The objectives of these programmes are to provide a more specialised study of language or, more usually, literature than at undergraduate level, to ensure a high level of language skills and to introduce students to individual research.
All universities offer postgraduate degrees in modern languages by research at Master's and doctoral levels, generally in areas corresponding to the specialism of the supervisor.
Alternative programmes
Alternative programmes to the study of language and literature have also been developed at postgraduate level, but not in European Studies and Applied Languages, as at undergraduate level. Master's programmes in European Studies exist at some universities, but do not include language study. There are no postgraduate degree programmes in Applied Languages. Alternative postgraduate degree programmes have evolved in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. One Postgraduate Diploma in Linguistics is offered (UCD), two Master's programmes in Linguistics (TCD and UCD), two Master's programmes in Applied Linguistics (TCD and UCC) and a Master's in Speech, Language and Technology (TCD).
The Postgraduate Diploma in Linguistics (UCD) aims to introduce students from other disciplines to Linguistics, and consists of subject matter from the honours degree in Linguistics, namely Phonemics and Phonology, Transformational Syntax, Historical grammar, Government/Binding Theory, Generative and non-linear Phonology, Semantics/Pragmatics and Lexical Morphology. A dissertation also forms part of the course.
The Master's programmes in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics aim to provide a specialist knowledge of the discipline and an introduction to research. Taught courses on the MA in Linguistics (UCD) include Theoretical Linguistics, Indo-European Comparative/Historical Linguistics and a special study in one language area. A dissertation is submitted in the form of a partial linguistic analysis of a language. The three programmes in TCD include courses on Syntax, Semantics/Pragmatics, Phonetics, Phonemics and Morphology. Students also specialise in areas relevant to their particular programme: semantic theory, discourse analysis and lexicology on the M. Phil. in Linguistics; sociolinguistics and second language acquisition on the M. Phil. in Applied Linguistics; and computational linguistics and speech technology on the M. Phil. in Speech, Language and Technology. A dissertation on one of the areas studied also forms part of the courses.
Research degrees in Applied Linguistics may be taken at a number of universities, particularly in the Centre for Language and Communication Studies (TCD).
The structure of postgraduate programmes is as described in Section 1.2. Taught Master's may be available in full-time or part-time mode. Only one taught Master's programme is offered through distance education, the MA in German in UCD. This may be taken as a one-year, full-time programme or in two-year, part-time mode or by distance education in two years.
Students in Irish, French, German or another language will normally have taken a first degree in the subject and achieved a good honours standard. Assessment is generally by course work, examination and thesis.
All postgraduate programmes in Linguistics or Applied Linguistics are one-year, full-time courses, although some may be taken over two years on a part-time basis. Students must have a good first degree in any discipline, although these programmes are particularly popular with language graduates. Assessment is by course work and examination, and a dissertation is included at Master's level.
The impact of European programmes at postgraduate level has been much less significant than for undergraduates, largely because the taught programmes are of one year's duration only and because a framework for the exchange of research students does not exist.
Official statistics on careers in Ireland are available for Arts graduates in general but not specifically for language graduates. However, a study is undertaken every few years by the Association of Graduate Career Services in Ireland to provide school leavers with information on the career opportunities related to various degree programmes, and one of the categories covered is modern languages (Aungier, Gallagher and Leonard, 1991). The most recent year for which figures are available is 1991. (It should be noted that these figures include students on the BA in Applied Languages in DCU in addition to Arts graduates from five other universities.)
The information was gathered in a survey undertaken in spring 1991 of all graduates of 1990. The published figures relating to languages are based on 150 graduates, 138 female and 12 male, with honours degrees in two European languages. Of the 129 of these who responded to the survey, 57 were pursuing further study or training, 62 were employed, eight were seeking employment and two were unavailable for work.
The 57 graduates pursuing further training or study consisted of 15 following the teacher training programme, Higher Diploma in Education, 11 pursuing further academic study, 28 following other training programmes and three on state-funded training and work experience programmes. The academic studies included higher degrees both in Ireland (six graduates) and abroad (five graduates). Of the 28 graduates following other training programmes, 15 were studying business (all in the Republic of Ireland), and seven were enrolled on programmes in the area of languages with a professional focus (five in Northern Ireland, one in the Republic of Ireland and one in Greece). Three graduates were studying accountancy, two were pursuing legal studies and one was following a secretarial course.
The single largest category of employment was in the area of teaching English as a foreign language (24 graduates, plus four employed as university language assistants). Most of these graduates were working abroad, mostly in Spain, France, Germany, Japan, Italy and Austria. A small, unspecified number was employed in Ireland in this area.
Other forms of employment included various types of business, almost all in the service sector, such as travel and tourism (7 graduates), accounting, pensions, tax advice and market research. No information is provided on the importance of languages in these posts. Five graduates were employed in what could be termed the language industry, including a commercial attaché in a language institute, a stagiaire in the European Commission, two translator/editors and a bilingual personal assistant.
Statistics are not yet available which will reveal developments since 1991, but anecdotal evidence suggests that the proportion of students opting for further study is increasing, particularly postgraduate diplomas and taught Master's programmes in areas such as Business Studies. Since 1991 employment opportunities in teaching English as a foreign language have increased in Ireland, and it is very likely that statistics for more recent years will also reflect this development.
There are five Colleges of Education for primary school teachers, St. Patrick's College, Drumcondra, St. Mary's College of Education, Marino, The Church of Ireland College of Education, Froebel College of Education (all located in Dublin) and Mary Immaculate College of Education, Limerick. Their degrees are awarded by Irish universities through a system of official linkages.
In all, 12 institutions provide training for second level teachers, but more than 80% receive their training in the form of a one-year postgraduate diploma in the Faculties of Education of St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, TCD, UCC, UCD and UCG. In addition, two concurrent undergraduate degree programmes, Bachelor of Education in Physical Education (UL) and Bachelor of Education in Home Economics (St. Catherine's College, Dublin) offer Irish as an elective subject.
Training programmes for teachers of English as a foreign language are offered by a number of universities (UCC, UCD, UCG, UL). The M. Phil. in Applied Linguistics (TCD) may also be included in this category, although it has been described in Section 2.3 along with other Master's programmes in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics.
Primary education
As all primary school teachers in Ireland teach English and Irish, they are in effect all language teachers. To ensure the presence of native speakers of Irish in the profession, about 10% of places each year are reserved for qualified applicants from the Gaeltacht.
Students on the degree of Bachelor of Education (BEd.) study Education and two academic subjects in first year and Education and one academic subject in second year and in third year. Academic subjects typically include English, French, Geography, History, Irish, Mathematics and Music. German was introduced in 1993 in Mary Immaculate College, Limerick. The Education course includes the study of the history, psychology, philosophy and sociology of education, as well as the study of classroom management, curriculum and teaching methodology, including the teaching of Irish and English. Approximately 17 weeks of practical teaching in schools also forms part of the course.
Post-primary education
The training programme for secondary school teachers consists of a one-year, postgraduate programme, the Higher Diploma in Education. This includes the history, philosophy, psychology and sociology of education, curriculum theory and development, teaching methodology and educational technology, as well as a course in the teaching of the major subject in the student's first degree. In UCC, for example, special courses in the teaching of Irish and the teaching of modern languages are available. Students also spend a minimum of 100 hours in classroom teaching practice.
Qualification for secondary teachers is regulated by the Teachers' Registration Council, which requires that they possess a recognised degree which includes three years' study of at least one of the approved subjects for secondary schools, and a Higher Diploma in Education. Qualified teachers may teach their major subject to Leaving Certificate level and their subsidiary subject to Junior Certificate level.
Higher degrees
Graduates who achieve a good honours standard in the Bachelor of Education or the Higher Diploma in Education may study for a taught Master's degree in Education, or they may submit a thesis for the degree of M Ed or PhD.
Language teachers may also take a higher degree at Master's or doctoral level either in the subject in which they specialised in their first degree or in Applied Linguistics (See Section 2.3).
Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
A range of courses is available to those wishing to train as teachers of English as a Foreign Language, including short courses provided by private institutions, the certificate and diploma courses of the Royal Society of Arts, and postgraduate university programmes. Only the university programmes are included here.
The only full-time programme is the Graduate Diploma/MA in TEFL at UL. The Diploma is a taught programme including Linguistics, Language Systems, Phonetics, Phonology, Language Teaching Methodology and teaching practice. Those who complete the Diploma to a good honours standard may submit a dissertation for the award of MA.
Certificates in TEFL (UCD, UCG) are aimed at graduates with no experience in this area. They include courses in methodological approaches, description of English for TEFL, syllabus design, classroom applications and educational technology. Class observation and teaching practice are also included. Students on the Higher Diploma in Education at UCD may combine the Certificate in TEFL with the Higher Diploma. An option in TEFL is also available as part of the Higher Diploma in Education at UCC.
The Bachelor of Education for primary school teachers is of three or four years' duration. In St. Patrick's College, Drumcondra, for example, it is a three-year honours programme. In a number of colleges the degree is awarded at ordinary level by TCD at the end of three years. Students at a sufficient standard may study at TCD for a fourth year for the degree of BEd. at honours level. Assessment is typically by course work and examination. All courses include direct classroom practice, and a pass in teaching practice is essential for the award of the degree.
The Higher Diploma in Education is a one-year, full-time postgraduate programme, including a minimum of 100 hours of teaching practice. Assessment is by course work and examination, and students must achieve a pass in the teaching practice.
The structure of programmes at Master's and doctoral level is described in Section 1.2.
The Graduate Diploma in TEFL is a one-year, full-time programme. Assessment is by course work and examination, including assessment of teaching practice. A second year of study is necessary for the completion of the Master's degree.
The Certificate in TEFL at UCD is a one-year, part-time programme, which may be taken as part of the Higher Diploma in Education. The course in TEFL at UCC is part of the Higher Diploma in Education. Assessment is by course work and examination.
Student and faculty exchange programmes have relatively little impact on training programmes in languages for primary school teachers, although participation in ERASMUS and LINGUA programmes is gradually increasing. The impact of European programmes tends to be felt through other European projects, such as the network of teacher training institutions known as the Réseau d'Institutions de Formation, and projects involving the teaching of Irish co-ordinated by the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages, which is based in Dublin.
At second level the impact of European programmes is very significant, but indirect, as students on the Higher Diploma in Education intending to teach a language may have spent part of their undergraduate programme in a country where the language is spoken through ERASMUS or LINGUA networks (See Section 2.1.3).
Training programmes in TEFL are not part of any European programmes.
In-service training for language teachers, as for all teachers, is the responsibility of the Department of Education. It is funded by the Department, co-ordinated by the In-Career Development Unit and monitored by the inspectorate. The Department takes direct responsibility for the provision of training programmes when there is a change of syllabus and a resulting change in the form and content of examinations. Otherwise in-service training is devolved to a large number of associations and institutions. Subject Associations play a major role in the area of languages, as well as organisations committed to the development of specific languages, such as the Bureau de Coopération Linguistique et Educative of the French Embassy and the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst. Colleges of Education and universities are also providers of in-service courses. Attendance at such courses is voluntary.
Postgraduate programmes in the teaching of languages or in the subject in which the teacher specialised at undergraduate level may also be chosen as a form of in-service training (See Section 2.3), although this places a heavy burden on individual teachers, both financially and in terms of the additional workload, and, in some cases, the distance from the university.
In-service provision is of three types:
An important development in in-service training is the availability of LINGUA funding to enable teachers to visit and follow a course in a country in which the language which they teach is spoken. In 1993 101 Irish teachers availed of this opportunity to visit Germany (37), France (33), Spain (22) and Italy (9) (LINGUA Programme: 1993 Activity Report, 1994: Annex 1). While these figures place Ireland in eleventh place in the twelve member states, they nevertheless represent a much higher proportion of the total population than in many other member states.
Courses range in length from a half-day to several weeks. Courses during the school year tend to be short as replacement funding is rare.
The major impact of Community programmes has been the provision of LINGUA funding for teachers to follow courses in other EU countries. Other projects have encouraged links between those involved in teacher training in Ireland and other European countries. Examples include a Summer University on Lesser Used Languages, held in Limerick in 1994, and a project involving the development of a course in the teaching of Languages for Special Purposes.
There are no complete programmes designed specifically for teachers of a second language, that is to say teachers of English in the Gaeltacht and in Gaelscoileanna, and teachers of Irish to students outside the Gaeltacht for whom Irish may be used extensively outside school as a second language. The teaching of English in the Gaeltacht has taken account of changes in the national language policy (see Section 1.1.2).
The recent introduction of programmes combining professionally oriented disciplines with language study to degree level has been one of the major developments in modern languages in higher education in Ireland. A wide variety of such programmes has been introduced, although the numbers of students are generally very small compared to the numbers taking the equivalent degrees without language study. Since 1989 all universities have introduced programmes combining Business Studies with a language. Law may be combined with a language in four universities, and programmes in Computer Science including language study are offered by four universities. Language study to degree level in combination with a scientific discipline is still rare and is available at only one university (DCU). All these programmes aim to produce professionals capable of working in their field in another European country or of communicating effectively with speakers of other European languages.
Business Studies and language
All Irish universities now offer a degree programme in Business Studies, Commerce or Marketing, together with a language studied to degree level. The most common is the Bachelor of Commerce or Bachelor of Business Studies with French, German or Spanish (UCC, UCD, UCG, UL). From 1995 onwards a four-year degree programme in European Business will be offered by DCU, in which two years are spent studying in France. This programme is partly funded by the EU through a partnership programme. Commerce may be studied with Italian (UCC, UCD) or with Irish (UCC). In TCD Business Studies may be combined with French, German or Russian. In these programmes the level of integration of the language and business components varies greatly. Students on some programmes follow all Business Studies courses along with students not taking a language, while on other programmes part of the course in Business Studies may be delivered through the target language. The language component may be specifically designed to be of relevance to students of business, or it may consist of a course followed by students on several different programmes.
While no degree programme combines Business Studies with two languages, two programmes offer two languages with Marketing. The BA in International Marketing and Languages (DCU) includes a foundation course in Business Studies followed by a study of International Marketing. This is combined with the study of two languages chosen from French, German and Spanish. In Years 3 and 4 students may continue the study of two languages, or they may study one language only. Two languages may also be studied with Marketing on the BA in Applied Languages at UL (See Section 2.2 above).
Law and language
One language may be studied to degree level as part of a degree in law at four universities (TCD, UCC, UCG, and UL). French and German are offered at all four universities, Spanish is also available in three programmes (UCC, UCG and UL), and UCC also offers Irish and Italian. As in the case of degree programmes in Business Studies, the level of integration of the language and legal components varies considerably between the various courses. Courses in Law are usually followed in common with students not studying a language. The language courses aim to provide students with advanced language skills and knowledge about the appropriate culture. Specialist courses in the use of the language in a legal context may be provided (French and German at TCD, French at UCG). In TCD students also study Law through French or German for one year. The programme offered at UL differs from the others in that it is entitled BA in Law and European Studies and includes, in addition to courses in Law and in language, a study of History, Politics or Sociology in a European context.
Computer Science and language
Computer Science may be combined with the study of one language to degree level in three universities (DCU, TCD, UCG) and with two languages at UL. In addition to courses in Computer Science, taken with students not studying a language, most of these programmes include courses in Linguistics and in Computational Linguistics. In addition, the DCU programme emphasises Translation and Machine Translation, and the UL programme includes an option on Technical Writing. Languages studied include French and German at all four universities. Spanish and Irish are also available in two programmes. The language and computing elements may be studied in common with other students in those disciplines not enrolled on the programme, or the components of the programme may be specially designed to be of particular relevance to students on this particular programme.
Other Combinations
In addition to these programmes, language study to degree level may be combined with Physics (with French at DCU) or Chemistry (with German at DCU). Degree programmes in Communications and in Journalism may also be combined with French (DCU). The BA in Insurance and European Studies and the BSc in Sports and Exercise Science (UL) may be combined with French, German or Spanish.
Degree programmes combining Business Studies with a language are all of four years' duration, and most include, or plan to include, a year of study abroad. At UL one semester is spent either studying or working abroad.
In programmes combining Law and a language students generally devote approximately 80% of their studies to legal subjects and 20% to language, although there is considerable variation in the integration of the legal studies and the language component.
The degree may be of three years' duration (UCC, UCG) or it may last four years and include either a year studying at a university abroad (TCD) or a semester abroad and a semester in a legal work placement, usually in Ireland (UL). In TCD the third year of study in France or Germany accounts for 35% of the students' final assessment.
Programmes combining Computer Science and a language are of four years' duration. In two universities (DCU and TCD) a year of study abroad is included, and in UL one semester is spent either studying abroad or in a work placement in Ireland or abroad. Assessment is by course work and examination and a special project is included.
The degrees combining Physics and Chemistry with language study are four-year programmes, including a year (the third year) studying the subject in a French or German-speaking country. Insurance and European Studies, also a four-year programme, includes two semesters (fourth and seventh) in work placement or studying at a university abroad. The degree programme in Sports and Exercise Science includes one semester of study abroad or work placement in Ireland or abroad.
The majority of the programmes described in this section have been introduced recently, and the possibility of studying abroad through ERASMUS exchanges has been incorporated into the structure of the programmes from the start. Thus, as in the case of Arts degrees, ERASMUS has played a major role, not only in internationalising the university experience of individual students, but also in lengthening and internationalising the structure of undergraduate degrees programmes.
In addition to the degree programmes described in the previous section, electives in languages, lasting one year or more, are available in all universities. Until recently the number of such courses was limited, but they are now increasing rapidly in relation to the overall numbers of students, the number of degree programmes involved and the range of languages and levels of study offered.
Undergraduate courses
These courses are most common in Business Studies and in the area of science and technology. However, electives in languages have also been introduced for students of Architecture, Economics and Social Studies.
The objectives of these electives are generally a combination of the following:
The content also varies, including a general emphasis on the culture of the target country, a business orientation, preparation for work or study abroad or a focus on the specialist area of the student.
The vast majority of students taking electives in a language choose French or German. This is partly because of the dominance of these subjects at second level and, particularly in the case of German, because the language is perceived as the most likely to be of use in the student's future career. Spanish and, to a lesser extent, Italian and Russian are also available in some universities.
Initial and final levels of language skills on these courses are generally much lower than on degree programmes which include language study throughout. While German is usually offered ab initio or at intermediate level, the majority of students are beginners. The level varies from beginners courses in language skills for survival to more advanced study aiming to prepare students for work or study abroad.
Postgraduate courses
The provision of electives in languages is limited to undergraduate degree programmes, with the notable exceptions of the Master of Business Administration and MBS in International Strategic Marketing (DCU). These programmes include an obligatory language component, offering French, German or Spanish for Business Purposes. Emphasis on semi-autonomous learning in the mode of delivery facilitates the provision of language courses to relatively small numbers of students, all starting at different levels. A Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing taught through German is also offered at UCD.
These courses are structured in such a variety of ways that it is difficult to discern any typical patterns. In programmes where language study has become established over a number of years, the language component may be an elective stream taken over one or two years for three or four hours per week. The study of a language may be compulsory, with the choice of language left to the student. At the other extreme the language component may represent extra work for students, taught outside normal class times, with little or no credit in overall grades for those who do well. In many universities the demand for these courses is greater than language departments are able to satisfy. Furthermore, courses which are provided are often delivered by part-time faculty. However, it is important to note that large-scale developments in this area are a recent phenomenon, and structures are likely to emerge more clearly in the next few years as developments in the organisation of these courses come into effect.
Initiatives which seem destined to influence the provision of service courses include, firstly, the introduction of language centres in several universities, and, secondly, greater emphasis on autonomous and semi-autonomous language learning in the mode of delivery. These trends became particularly evident in the 1993-94 academic year with the availability of ESF funding through the Higher Education Authority for a number of projects which introduced language courses in degree programmes in Business, Engineering and Science, and other disciplines. The modularisation of degree programmes, which is being undertaken by several universities at the moment, could also facilitate the integration of language electives in degree programmes in other disciplines.
While a number of students have participated in COMETT and ERASMUS exchanges with the help of preparatory language courses, the proportion of students in this category availing of such opportunities remains small. For example, in 1992-93 only 28 students studied abroad in the European Community Course Credit Transfer System. These exchanges involved students of Medicine, Chemistry, History, Business Studies and Mechanical Engineering. However, the universities could be described as being in a period of transition, and it seems likely that the demand for periods of work or study abroad will increase in the next decade.
At undergraduate level, language degrees in Ireland commonly include some study of translating, but only one undergraduate programme focuses on the training of translators, the BA in Applied Languages (Translation with Interpreting) at DCU, which has been in operation since 1982. The BA in Applied Languages at UL, which had its first intake in 1994, also includes a substantial amount of translation theory and practice, but does not focus solely on this area and is therefore included in Section 2.2. The Arts degree in UCC also includes components in professional translation.
Three postgraduate programmes are offered in this area. Two taught programmes, MA in Translation Studies and MA in Translation (Spanish-English) are offered at UCC. DCU offers a taught programme, MA in Translation Studies, as well as research degrees at Master's and doctoral level. Research in translation for higher degrees may also be carried out at other universities where faculty have the appropriate specialism.
The aim of the BA in Applied Languages (DCU) is to train career linguists. It includes two languages, chosen from French, German and Spanish. In addition to general and specialist language training, students follow courses in the theory and practice of translation, technological aids, English language, Science, Technology and Economics. The main emphasis is placed on the professional skills of translating, and the component in interpreting is an introduction to the area rather than a qualification as an interpreter.
The Master's programmes aim to provide students with the knowledge and skills which will enable them to pursue careers or research in the field of translation. At DCU the languages studied are either Irish or two languages, chosen from French, German, Irish and Spanish. The course is divided into four areas: translation practice, translation theory, translation technology (including Machine Translation and Terminology) and language skills development. A dissertation on a translation-related topic also forms part of the programme.
The MA in Translation Studies (UCC) includes two languages (French/German; French/Italian; French/Spanish; German/Italian; German/Spanish). The programme includes courses in literary translation, document translation, terminology, area studies of each country concerned, word processing, use of relational databases, and an introduction to consecutive and simultaneous interpreting. A number of work experience tasks are also included in the programme.
The MA in Translation (Spanish/English) at UCC includes courses on advanced translation, translation theory, translation techniques and transformational analysis. A critical project also forms part of the programme.
The BA in Applied Languages (DCU) is a four-year programme, consisting of three years at DCU and one year, the third year of the programme, spent on a specially designed programme at a university in a French, German or Spanish-speaking country. Assessment is by course work and examination.
The Master's Degrees in Translation Studies (DCU and UCC) are one-year, full-time programmes. Assessment is by course work and examination. Students at DCU are also required to submit a dissertation. At UCC the MA in Translation (Spanish/English) is a two-year course, assessed by course work, examination and dissertation.
In the area of translating, the impact of community programmes is evident mainly at undergraduate level. At postgraduate level the impact is indirect, in that students may have benefited from participation in an Erasmus network as undergraduates.
Erasmus exchanges play a vital role in the BA in Applied Languages at DCU. The third year is spent abroad through Erasmus networks linking DCU with other universities involved in training translators and interpreters. While exchanges to date have been largely at student level in these networks, faculty at DCU have been involved in European research contacts through their involvement in the Eurotra programme.
Since most of the postgraduate programmes in translating have been introduced recently, published information on the careers of graduates is not yet available. Information has been collected for several years on the graduates of the BA in Applied Languages (Translation with interpreting) at DCU. 36 students (33 female and 3 male) graduated in 1993. Of the 34 of these who responded to a survey at the end of April in the year following graduation, seven were pursuing research or further study (six in Ireland and one abroad), one was involved in other professional training, one was unavailable for work, two were seeking employment and 23 were in employment (15 in Ireland, seven abroad and one unspecified).
Four graduates were employed as translators and one as a terminologist. Eight were working as teachers, including three English language assistants, one teacher of English as a foreign language, two teachers of French and German and two lecturers (subjects not specified). Two graduates were employed as research assistants and two in software companies. The remaining six graduates were employed in companies, mostly in customer services.
It is difficult to assess the long term career prospects of students from information supplied less than a year after graduation. However, certain trends, such as the high level of emigration and the popularity of language teaching are characteristic of language graduates in general (See Section 2.4).
Higher education outside the university sector is provided by the Dublin Institute of Technology, the Regional Technical Colleges, and by a number of private colleges. Courses offered by these institutions all have a strong professional orientation, particularly in the areas of business and technology, and no full language degree programmes are offered.
Languages are included in a large number of programmes in the Regional Technical Colleges (RTCs), in the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) and in hotel and catering colleges. These programmes aim to give students a foundation for a career in business or industry. A range of certificate, diploma and degree programmes is offered, mostly in the areas of Business Studies and Technology. (Graduate Diploma and Master's programmes are also offered but do not include language study.)
At certificate and diploma level languages are most in evidence in programmes in Business Studies, particularly in areas such as European Business, International Marketing and Tourism. In addition to these, language courses are offered in programmes which specialise in Recreation and Leisure Studies (Cork RTC), Computer Applications (Sligo RTC) and Office Information Systems (Carlow RTC).
Languages also form part of a number of diplomas in science and technology, such as the National Diploma in Engineering in Manufacturing Processes, the National Certificate in Science in Chemistry and the National Diploma in Computing in Software Engineering (Cork RTC), which includes the study of two European languages.
At degree level languages are included in programmes in the area of business and management, such as the Bachelor of Business Studies, which is offered by eight colleges. Other programmes include the BSc in Hotel and Catering Management (Galway RTC), which includes a year of work placement abroad, the Bachelor of Business Studies in Tourism and Hospitality Management (Athlone RTC) and the BA in Tourism Studies (LSB College).
On all the above-mentioned courses the languages offered are mostly French and German, although Spanish and Italian are also available in some colleges. Russian is offered in one college (Letterkenny RTC). The study of one language is the norm, although some programmes, mostly in International Business, include two languages.
Languages are less in evidence in private colleges than in the state-funded institutions. A notable exception is the BA in European Business and Languages at the National College of Industrial Relations, which had its first intake in 1994.
The majority of these courses are validated by the National Council for Educational Awards and the structure is the same in all the designated colleges. A National Certificate is a two-year, full-time programme. A National Diploma can be taken either through a year's study following the National Certificate or through a three-year ab initio course. These awards may also be taken through a comparable period of part-time study. A Bachelor's degree normally takes four years. Through a number of organised linkages, students who perform well in the National Diploma may study for a further two years to complete a degree programme in an RTC, in an Irish university or in a number of universities in the United Kingdom.
Diploma and degree programmes include a substantial period (usually one year) of work placement or study abroad. In some cases courses are offered jointly with partner institutions in other European countries. For example, the National Diploma in Business Studies in International Marketing (Sligo RTC) is run jointly, on an exchange basis, with the Institut Universitaire de Technologie, Montluçon, France, and the National Diploma in Computing in Software Engineering (Cork RTC) includes periods of study in Huddersfield, the United Kingdom, and Lannion, France.
The RTCs and the DIT have shown great commitment to the development of modern language study in their courses, particularly in Business Studies. As a result of ERASMUS exchanges, a period of study abroad is common in programmes offered by these colleges and, in some cases, joint programmes of study have been developed. Thus ERASMUS has played a vital role in internationalising certificate, diploma and, to a lesser extent, degree programmes in these colleges.
There is little evidence of participation in Community programmes by private colleges, although a small number of these colleges intend to participate in such programmes in the near future.
Students, both on Arts degrees and on programmes combining language study with other disciplines, now see proficiency in the language or languages studied as a major asset in a variety of careers. It is therefore essential that priority is given to the creation of an environment in which this proficiency is ensured. Several needs can be identified here:
Despite the significant increase in the numbers of students taking degrees in modern languages and the development of degree programmes combining language study with programmes in other disciplines, there are still considerable advantages to be gained from further developments in this area at undergraduate level. The proportion of graduates in Ireland with no competence in a language other than English or Irish is still very high.
At postgraduate level programmes in languages lack an international dimension, in that study at a university in another European country is not included.
Despite the impact of LINGUA, only a small proportion of language teachers enjoy in-service courses abroad or staff exchanges. There is a need for an extension of such provision.
Greater international co-operation in both initial and in-service provision would also increase awareness of a common teaching profession across Europe.
In programmes where a language is studied to degree level, students graduate with a high level of language skills. In other courses the emphasis is on the provision of survival skills or the preparation of students for a period of study abroad or for language use in a future career. There is a need for the requirements of all these students to be examined and courses structured more effectively to meet their needs.
While the internationalisation of many degree programmes in Business, Law and Computer Science is facilitating European integration, developments in other areas are slower. In particular, language study is not sufficiently integrated in many Engineering and Science degree programmes, with the result that students perceive it to be of marginal importance and, as a consequence, the proportion of students working or studying abroad remains small. In areas of study other than those mentioned above, language study is rare and cross cultural communication in a European context is correspondingly limited.
Status of translators and interpreters. Translators and interpreters have no official status in Ireland, and anyone can legally describe him or herself as a translator or interpreter, regardless of qualifications or expertise. A professional structure is needed, ideally at international level, within which programmes in translation and interpreting can operate. The lack of professionalization in this area is a major obstacle to the development of the profession and of appropriate training programmes.
Greater international co-operation at Master's level and in postgraduate research programmes would allow training in this area to develop in a European context.
No language programmes are available in this category.
Despite considerable advances recently in staffing and in other resources, the constraints in this area in universities also apply here. Delivery of courses relies to a certain extent on part-time lecturers, and applied research in Language for Special Purposes is developing at a slower rate than the expansion in the provision of courses.
The major success in this area has been the development of programmes in which one or two languages are studied in programmes in Business, Marketing and Tourism. Language study in Engineering and Science courses, while also developing, is less widely available. There is a need for such provision to be extended.
Internationalisation in the form of language preparation and work or study abroad is confined to those areas where the need for languages is patently obvious, namely international business and tourism. An extension of language study and international exchange to other areas will assist in the process of European integration.
(1994) The Education System in Ireland. Dossiers Nationaux EURYDICE - version 1994.
(1994) ERASMUS Programme Annual Report 1993. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
(1994) LINGUA Compendium 1993. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
(1994) LINGUA Programme 1993 Activity Report. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
(1994) NCEA Directory of Approved Courses in Higher Education. Dublin: National Council for Educational Awards
(1993) The 1994 prospectuses of all universities in the Republic of Ireland.
(1993) ERASMUS and LINGUA Action II: 1993/94 Directory. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
(1993) The Outlook for Higher Education in the European Community. Responses to the Memorandum. Studies, No.2.
(1993) The Leaving Certificate Applied Programme. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment.
(1992) Education for a Changing World. Green Paper. Dublin: Rialtas na Éireann.
Aungier, C., Gallagher, J. and Leonard, N. (1991) Graduates and their Careers: The Career Implications of Degree Courses. A Guide for School Leavers and Third Level Students. Dublin: The Association of Graduate Career Services in Ireland.
Broderick, M. (1994) Languages for Specific Purposes: A Report on the Provision of LSP in the Republic of Ireland. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.
Byrne, K. and Cremin, P. (1994) 'Ireland.' In Brock, C. and Tulasiewicz, W. (eds.) Education for a Single Europe. London: Routledge.
Chambers, A. and Fischer, J. (1994). Register of Research in Modern Languages. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.
Coolahan, J. (ed.) (1994). Report on The National Education Convention. Dublin: The National Education Convention Secretariat.
Hyland, A. and Milne, K. (1992). Irish Educational Documents, Vol. II. Dublin: Church of Ireland College of Education.
McCarthy, J. (1993) Culture and Communication: Foreign Languages in the Primary School Curriculum. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment.
Ruane, M. (1990) Access to Foreign Languages. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.
Universities:
| DCU | Dublin City University |
| TCD | Trinity College Dublin |
| UCC | University College Cork |
| UCD | University College Dublin |
| UCG | University College Galway |
| UL | University of Limerick |
Other Educational Institutions
| RTC | Regional Technical College |
| DIT | Dublin Institute of Technology |
| NCEA | National Council for Educational Awards |
|
ELC
homepage |
