LANGUAGE STUDIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREECE

Vasso Tocatlidou

Department of French Language and Literature
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
GR-54006 Thessaloniki, Greece

1. INTRODUCTION

This report examines the language study situation in Greece. Greece is a country whose national language is one of the least-spoken in Europe, but where the study of other European languages is an extremely important field of activity, in both the public and the private sector. The study of foreign languages having always applied methods and models imported from the country of origin of the language in question, it has long remained alien to the needs of Greek society, which did not begin to review its traditional systems of education, professional training and language study until after the fall of the junta.

1.1. The national linguistic situation

The linguistic landscape in Greece appears relatively homogenous, with Modern Greek written and spoken all across the country. In its standard form, it is the language of public and private television (more than fifty stations), the language of radio (number of stations unknown), and the language of the press (with the exception of the English-language "Athens News"). This standard form, stripped of all social and regional markers, is leading to the standardisation of the various local idioms, such as Cretan or Thracian, whose characteristic phonological and lexical features are gradually tending to disappear.

Modern Greek has evolved from Classical Greek, and thus stands apart from the great majority of European languages, derived from Latin or Saxon. This is one of the reasons why Modern Greek is one of the "less-spoken languages", and why the modern Greeks are such avid students of foreign languages.

Greece's linguistic landscape is highly coloured by the salient written presence in the environment and the media of a number of other European languages, principally English, French, Italian and German. A deluge of notices, signs, trademarks and advertising slogans, varying in number in proportion to the socio-cultural level, means that by the age of 11 young Greeks are able to recognise and use the Latin alphabet.

This deluge of foreign languages has a number of causes, including historical, sociological (stereotypes), economic (marketing) and other less evident factors; and it is a cause for concern for the defenders of the purity of the national language. This, however, is unjustified, for Greek remains the language of use of all Greeks, including members of linguistic minority groups who used to use another language (Armenian, Vlach) within their family circles; today, these languages are tending to disappear. This phenomenon is neither new, nor specific to the Greek linguistic situation; but it is worthy of note, given the ideological parameters with which it is associated. As in other similar cases, the young people do not seem particularly concerned to preserve their linguistic heritage, with one notable exception: the Muslim minority in Thrace, which uses Turkish and receives a religious education, also in Turkish.

A significant new factor has made itself felt since the recent collapse of the Eastern European world: groups of Greek refugees and migrants have moved from the republics of the former Soviet Union where they had long been settled to Greece, which they have always considered their country of origin. These people speak Pontiaka, an idiom which is closer to classical Greek in morphology and which is not always readily understood by their native interlocutors. The "foreign language" they have learned is Russian, which in Greece is not a useful language for communication. Given the social and cultural differences between their country of origin and their new host country, these groups, including considerable numbers of migrant Albanian labourers, are faced with serious problems of communication and hence of integration into the Greek environment. This is a new factor, recently added to the realities which constitute the linguistic situation in Greece and define the terms of the debate on education and adult training.

1.1.1. National languages

Modern Greek is the national language of Greece. The disputes between the defenders of a "pure language" (katharevousa) and the promoters of the "popular language" (dimotiki) which marked the entire inter-war period ended with the junta, whose overthrow brought katharevousa down in its wake: it was replaced by dimotiki, which has become the official language of the Greek State and the Constitution.

Greek is thus both the official language and that spoken - in regional forms marked by phonological, morphological and lexical differences - in all parts of Greece by all Greek citizens, with the exception of the Muslim minority in Thrace.

1.1.2. Language policy

One consequence of the disputes between the "purists" and the defenders of the "popular language" has been to restrict the concept and the definition of "language policy". Language policy, even education policy, is labelled either "progressive and democratic" or "conservative and reactionary", according to its position with respect to the two forms of Greek. Further, the view that Greek is an isolated language belonging to no major contemporary language group and little spoken outside Greece, has thus far oriented both the debate on language, and official action, in the direction of preservation of the national tongue. Language policy has thus not been able to broaden its horizons, and has remained centripetal, limited to dealing with questions of Greek alone. Other equally crucial questions, such as that of the Gypsies as a linguistic minority, that of foreign workers in Greece, or - despite the heavy immigration (political refugees and immigrants from the Third World) of the past fifteen years - that of the children of immigrant workers, have remained outside the scope of language policy. The measures adopted in such cases as these, in implementation of Community Social Fund programmes, are not constituent elements of official language policy but a separate chapter, even when designed to deal with language problems. This is one of the reasons why research on Greek as a second language (interlinguistic-intercultural approach, etc.) is a very restricted field of academic research.

Language study involves three different sectors: private language schools, the state education system, and certain State-supported institutions.

The private sector, with its more than 6000 institutions, has spread over the entire country: the smallest village boasts its language school, with the "laws of a free market" favouring the study of English first and foremost, followed by French, German and Italian. There are also schools teaching other languages (Spanish, Russian, Japanese, etc.), but these are rare. Language schools come under the jurisdiction of a special Ministry of Education Department.

Besides these private schools, there are in Athens and Thessaloniki institutions sponsored by certain Embassies within the framework of their cultural activities, which not only function as language schools but offer other cultural activities as well: these are The British Council, l' Institut Français (with annexes in several Greek towns), the Goethe Institut and the Instituto Italiano. In their teaching activities these institutions have the same statute as the private language schools.

In the public sector, historic and economic factors favour the teaching of English (taught from primary school through University) and French (taught in secondary schools and at the Universities); German (taught in certain secondary schools and at University level) comes a distant third, while Italian is very little taught, and only at the University level. The Ministry of Education has recently decided to include the parallel study of both English and French in the compulsory programme: the study of English is to begin in primary school at the age of 9, with three hours a week, and French three years later, in junior high school, with two or three hours a week. This means that at the junior secondary level (12-15 years) five hours a week are to be devoted to language study. This means that all secondary schools will now require two language teachers, which will generally double both the number of teaching positions and the number of classrooms allocated to language study. Given current financial limitations, however, the costs involved prohibit the implementation of this decision in all schools,

It should be noted that the compulsory teaching of two foreign languages at the secondary level, introduced with no prior preparation of curricula or material, no prior teacher training, and no support or evaluation system, has created doubts as to its efficacity. While compulsory instruction in two foreign languages does indicate the desire of the authorities to follow official European policy, it is certainly not evidence of a national language-education policy.

The third sector concerned with languages is that of certain State-supported institutions and organisations (the Society for Macedonian Studies, the University of Thessaloniki's Greek Language School, the Greek Language Centre). These institutions offer courses in Modern Greek and Balkan Languages (Croatian, Serbian, Albanian, Turkish, Romanian, Bulgarian, etc.), as well as conducting research into and publishing material on these languages.

1.2. The system of higher education

The higher education system in Greece includes eighteen universities (A.E.I.) devoted to teaching and research in all fields of study.

Each discipline has its own department, subdivided in most cases into sectors (teaching and research units), specialised in a particular constituent field of the discipline in question. Research Laboratories may belong either to a department or to a specialised sector.

The structures of the various departments are closely linked to the programmes of study and to the research activities pursued.

Studies are carried out at three levels, leading to three diplomas. The first level of university studies requires a minimum of 8-10 semesters, and leads to a Bachelor's degree, entitling the holder to teach in the public and private sectors. The following level, with at least four more semesters of study, leads to a Diploma of Post-Graduate Studies, a desirable qualification in the labour market, and frequently the first compulsory step towards a doctoral diploma. A minimum of six semesters of study, pursued either concurrently with or consecutive to the second level of studies, leads to a Doctoral Diploma, which gives access to an academic career.

It should be noted, however, that not all departments have developed programmes of post-graduate studies (see Table 3).

Higher education views foreign languages in two ways:

a) as an object of study, a field of research, an educational discipline;
b) as a subject for compulsory study by students of all disciplines.

Two Greek universities have foreign language and literature departments (English and American, French, German, Italian), while one offers courses in translation and interpreting (English, French, German). The following table shows the structure of the two Greek universities language departments:

Table 1 : Language Departments and their structure

At the same time, in all eighteen Greek universities students of all disciplines are encouraged to study at least one foreign language before graduating. This also applies to the Higher Technical and Vocational Training institutes (TEI), where the study of one foreign language is compulsory.

1.3. The impact of secondary education on language studies in higher education

There is an obvious analogy between the requirements of secondary education and studies at the university level: the languages studied in the secondary system are also those taught at university level (with the single exception of Italian, which is not taught at the secondary level); the number of teaching positions for each language determines the number of candidates admitted each year to the corresponding university department; but owing to the financial constraints from which education has always suffered, existing positions are not all filled.

The universities accept limited numbers of students: only 20% of those who finish secondary school - about 23,000 a year - will be entitled to a place at university. A national entry examination organised by the Ministry of Education selects those who will be able to pursue their studies in one of the 83 disciplines offered by the faculties of the Greek universities. Approximately 1300 students a year, or 5.7% of those admitted to university, study foreign languages in Athens (the Kapodistrias University), Thessaloniki (the Aristotle University) or Corfu (the Department of Translation and Interpreting of the Ionian University) (see 5.1.). The detailed distribution of language students at these universities, according to the most recent proceedings of the Higher Education Council of the Ministry of Education (Bulletin 17) is as follows:

Table 2 : Language Departments and numbers admitted each year

The demands of teachers at the secondary level has led to fundamental changes in several university programmes. This is evinced by the introduction of subjects such as language teaching and methodology, not formerly a part of any programme, and, in certain cases (Thessaloniki), the creation of new units (Formation and Research Units, post-graduate level Laboratories and Study Departments) specially designed for language research and teaching/study. Similarly, the State Scholarship Foundation has made available scholarships for post-graduate studies in language teaching both in Greece and abroad.

The teaching conditions at the secondary level, however, so discouraging from every point of view (quality of textbooks and methods, lack of apparatus, institutional conditions and inappropriate salaries, etc.), generally prove too strong, and practically cancel out all that was gained in the university.

2. LANGUAGE DEGREE PROGRAMMES OFFERED BY UNIVERSITIES

2.1. Traditional Language and Literature programmes

The foreign language and literature departments were created just after the war, in the 1950s and '60s. Seven sections were gradually set up: English Language and Literature in Athens and Thessaloniki, French Language and Literature in Athens and Thessaloniki, Italian Language and Literature in Thessaloniki only, and German Language and Literature in Athens and Thessaloniki. For many years these departments functioned as "Institutes", directed by a professor seconded from the country in question and supervised by a committee of professors from the Faculty of Classic Studies; the teaching staff had neither the competence nor the academic qualifications required by all other University departments.

Although founded at a time when the sciences of theoretical and applied linguistics were making their triumphal entry into University amphitheatres everywhere, and audio-visual methods were proliferating on both sides of the Atlantic, language study programmes in Greece remained exclusively literary. And it was these programmes, destined to remain virtually unchanged until the early 1980's, which shaped a whole generation of secondary school language teachers; it should also be noted that the educational advisors currently responsible for reshaping and modernising language teaching programmes are products of this same literary training. A radical change occurred in 1982, when the former Institutes were up-graded to Departments, on a par with all other University departments (N.1268/82). From this point on each Department was free to define its own objectives and plan and implement its own programme, constrained only by the prescriptions of the outline law and by available resources. It was thus that the Corfu School for Translators and Interpreters became a Department of the Ionian University. All these departments offer four-year courses leading to a Bachelor's degree, entitling the holder to enter the teaching profession.

2.1.1. Content and objectives

The 1982 outline law defines the educational, scientific and social character of the universities, and states their political objective (N.1268/82, art. 1), leaving the General Assemblies of each Department free to choose their own orientation with respect to research and teaching and to decide on their own specific objectives and the content of their own programmes.

Thus it is that programmes once exclusively oriented towards literary studies are now expanding to embrace language sciences and didactics. Under the pressure of teaching requirements and the demands of the students who participate in all University proceedings, the Language Departments have gradually been coaxed into emerging from the chrysalis of tradition. But in most cases, existing human resources are insufficient to bring about innovation, even in the field of literary studies.

The objective of each Department's programme has been formulated fairly vaguely as "the teaching and study" of the language and literature in question. The material prescribed serves this general objective: 16th, 17th or 20th century Literature, History of Ideas, Study and Analysis of Texts, Dissertation, Stylistics and Psychostylistics, The Novel, Poetry and Drama, Comparative Literature, and at the same time Linguistics, Contrastive Study of Language, Lexicology, Semantics. Nevertheless, the fact that in Greece the Universities also serve as initial teacher training institutions has led to the introduction of courses on "methodology", "applied linguistics" and "language didactics". Teacher training has thus been included as a new objective of language departments; and there are instances (Thessaloniki: French and English Departments) where this new objective has transformed the structure of the Department by the creation of new Language Teaching Units, research laboratories specialising in didactics and new post-graduate programmes. These programmes include new subjects, such as Ethnolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication, Philosophy of Language and Sociolinguistics, as well as workshops and seminars dealing with questions of particular urgency in the teaching of living languages: mobile groups, intercultural and interlinguistic approaches to language learning, and the production of new teaching material adapted to current needs, particularly for the teaching of adults.

It should nonetheless be noted that this is still far from providing proper professional training, given that - whether for institutional reasons or because of lack of funds - practical classroom training and periods of study in the country where the language is spoken have yet to become reality.

2.1.2. Structure of programmes

Programme structure is defined by the outline law (N.1268/82), and is thus the same for all universities and for all disciplines. Programmes cover eight semesters of study, which is the minimum required for a Bachelor's degree.

The outline law permits the development of integrated programmes, developed by more than one Department. This was intended to facilitate the development of new types of training and study, better adapted to the requirements of society and the labour market. What has happened instead, however, has been the development of a centrifugal force tending to spin off new departments and sectors, rather than a contraction of existing units. The desired effect has only been achieved at the level of post-graduate research and study, where the new law on post-graduate studies (see 2.3.) has nurtured the growth of interdisciplinary and interdepartmental programmes.

This new law (N.2083/92) has standardised post-graduate studies, which up until then had developed in haphazard fashion. Some language departments have been able to set up new post-graduate sectors, and others will certainly follow. The programmes of study and diplomas granted by the language departments for each cycle of studies are currently as follows:

Table 3 : Programmes of study and diplomas

The programmes follow the structure of each Department, and are formed of subjects and activities chosen from all sectors of the department (see also Table 1). Subjects are divided into two categories: "compulsory", which cover approximately one fourth of the total, and "optional". Each student creates his own programme, choosing from the range of options those which seem best to cover his own particular interests. He must pass in all compulsory subjects, his only freedom of choice in this matter being the time of examination. Each subject provides a number of credits, which varies from department to department. In principle, according to the outline law, a course taught for one semester for one or two hours a week (12-24 hours) gives one credit. The number of credits required for an initial diploma is fixed by the General Assembly of the Department, which is attended by all who are entitled to vote: qualified teaching staff with a position of lector, assistant professor, associate professor or full professor, and student representatives in a ratio of 1:2 (student : teaching staff). In order to obtain his diploma, a student must have completed the required eight semesters with at least the minimum required number of credits, which means of course that he must pass the prescribed examinations in all his compulsory and optional subjects.

Assessment generally is of participants, rather than of the system. Students are assessed at the end of each semester; candidates for a teaching position are also assessed, as are those aspiring to a higher position than they already hold.

Methods of assessment vary considerably; the choice of method is up to the teacher, after consultation with the students. Usually, because of the numbers involved, the process selected is the traditional one of examinations, where students are required to appear on a certain date at a certain place (usually an amphitheatre) to provide written answers to a series of questions. But there are several alternatives: debates between students on a given subject, simulated mini-conferences on a topic, reports based on research projects, etc. Continuous assessment is frequently used where numbers permit.

Assessment of the programmes themselves may occur once a year, and the General Assembly may make any changes it deems necessary. Such changes would take into consideration the result obtained over the year, and any problems that might have appeared. It should be noted that no form of external assessment is either provided for or imposed.

2.1.3. Impact of Community programmes to date

The Community programmes have changed the entire landscape in the Departments concerned. They have been particularly helpful in developing programme assessment criteria for the original departments, and in removing the blinkers from a "generation" of students and staff, who are now able to appreciate difference and exchange instead fearing and rejecting them. They have also shown that co-operation between different institutions and structures is possible.

As has happened in other European countries, the Community programmes - proposed on the initiative of the teaching personnel and the Departments themselves - have led to a re-distribution of resources, and especially of information. The provincial universities have frequently proven to be extremely dynamic, and have welcomed the European challenge. In Greece, the university which has developed or participated in the most Community programmes is the University of Thessaloniki, the alma mater of more than 35% of the students concerned. According to data furnished by the State Scholarship Foundation (IKY), of a total of 1541 Greek students who did part of their courses in another European university in 1994-95, 609 came from Thessaloniki. In the field of language studies, of the 144 students who studied abroad within the framework of LINGUA II in the academic year 1993-94, 70 came from the Language Departments of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and the remaining 74 from the other 5 universities participating in the programme.

The impact of participation in these programmes has been obvious. It includes concrete activities, like the multi-lingual seminars to which students of a variety of mother tongues have contributed, the co-operative projects involving specialists from several different countries and institutions, and the creation of a common programme pursued alongside the national undergraduate programme and leading to a new diploma: the Mediterranean Diploma in Languages and Culture, the fruit of co-operation among a number of European universities, co-ordinated by the University of Nice. But the greatest benefit has without doubt been the development of new assessment criteria for the studies, the changed attitudes of students and staff, the willingness to accept what is different and the new interest in learning more than one language and, last but not least, the experience of moving around and of working with the rest of Europe. The typical comment of those students who have taken part in these programmes is that they "have watched their horizons broadening".

2.2. "Alternative" programmes

The Greek universities do not offer any other types of language studies, such as the Departments of Applied Language Studies found in the French universities. The only language study programmes are those described in the preceding paragraphs.

2.3. Post-graduate programmes

The post-graduate study programmes have evolved over a long period of time in a variety of ways. In most Departments this was simply a piece of research, leading to a doctoral degree. The system has recently been completely overhauled, and post-graduate studies in all universities must now conform with prescribed standards of organisation and content. The requirements of this new type of programme (N.2083/92) presuppose lengthy preparation by the departments concerned. This is why the various Departments in the University of Athens are still preparing their programmes. It is also why, of the three post-graduate programmes of the University of Thessaloniki approved by the Ministry (those of the departments of French Literature and English Language and Literature), two have not yet been implemented, but will be next year. It should be noted, though, that the University of Thessaloniki does have post-graduate study programmes in the field of languages, which are described hereafter.

2.3.1. Content and objectives

The Departments of French, German and Italian at the University of Thessaloniki, together with the Telecommunications Sector of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the Polytechnic School, have instituted a joint interdisciplinary programme, leading to an initial Diploma of Post-graduate Studies and eventually to a doctoral degree in "Language and Communication Sciences". This programme has two objectives:

a) Specialisation in Language Didactics, Language Sciences and Communication Science, and
b) Application of information and communication technology to language studies.

The programme leading to the Diploma of Post-graduate Studies prescribes 350 course hours and includes :

• a package of common material: Signals and data processing, Statistics and computer sciences, Semiosis and communication, Theories of meaning, etc.
• two series of major subjects : Methodology of scientific research, Non-verbal communication, Intercultural communication, Analysis of needs and linguistic auditing, Planning and development of teaching material, Technologies of distance learning, etc.
• a research project
• preparation of a dissertation to be defended in public, before a panel of three professors.

The PhD programme prescribes 300 course hours and includes :

• a package of subjects of technical interest: Definition of research field, Collecting data, samples and statistics, Writing techniques for scientific texts, Access to bibliographical resources, Constitution of a bibliography.
• a research seminar
• participation in at least one research project developed by the Language Didactics Laboratory
• preparation of a thesis on a research hypothesis, to be defended in public before a panel of seven professors.

2.3.2. Structure of programmes

The two programmes described in the preceding paragraph are organised by semesters: the first (Diploma of Post-graduate Studies) requires four semesters; the second (PhD), a further six. Students are assessed at the end of each semester. Assessment methods vary according to the type of course: written examination, presentation and defence of a project, submission of a dissertation and participation in a public debate are all methods which have been used. The feasibility of "external" assessment is being studied, despite the practical and material difficulties of such an operation: this underlines the usefulness of a European diploma.

2.3.3. Impact of Community programmes

The impact of Community programmes has been felt on two levels: both that of the people involved (particularly the students), and that of strategic planning and programme structure for the new type of post-graduate programme (see 2.3.1.). Students already pursuing post-graduate or doctoral studies in the former post-graduate programme have profited from mobile programmes and have been able to pursue their research in more than one university centre, or profit from the input of an international guidance committee.

Another noteworthy aspect is the creation of a European diploma, crowning a programme in which the Didactics Sector of the Department of French of the University of Thessaloniki, and thus by extension the Interdepartmental Post-graduate Studies Programme of the same University, participates (see 2.3.1.).

This is the European University Language Teaching Training Diploma, which has been developed within the framework of the ERASMUS-LINGUA II programme and is co-ordinated by the University of Mons. This special professional training, which is not compulsory for students of participating universities, is addressed to school contexts and consumers rather than to adult professionals, hence the heavy emphasis on psychopaedagogy. Universities from virtually all European countries (one per country) participate in this programme, which prescribes two further semesters of study, pursued in two different network countries, after the completion of university studies. A panel including academic advisors from at least three different countries assesses the projects submitted by the students enrolled in this programme. After completion of this training, during the September session, each student must defend a dissertation prepared in more than one of the universities in the network. The diploma is awarded jointly by the institutions concerned, and is automatically recognised by all the other universities in the network. The first diplomas have already been awarded, and student interest is extremely encouraging.

It should however be noted that this cycle is only a European extension of national programmes; it is not targeted to the new requirements of a common European space, nor was it designed ad hoc on a completely new basis: this will be the challenge of an all-new programme of post-graduate studies.

Indeed, in view of the new Community programmes Socrates and Leonardo, an extremely lively debate on post-graduate studies is animating the European networks. In fact, a meeting of two European Language and Literature Department networks, ERASMUS and LINGUA II, both co-ordinated by the University of Limerick, will be held in Thessaloniki at the end of May 1995. One of the subjects on the agenda is the development of a common post-graduate programme oriented equally to academic and professional expectations.

2.4. Career prospects for graduates of language programmes

Almost all graduates of language departments look towards teaching as a profession. A poll taken at the University of Thessaloniki showed that 83% of language students expected to teach in the public school system.

But the road from university to teaching job is usually long and arduous. For most graduates, it may be years before they find a teaching position; in the meantime they work as secretaries, salespersons, taxi drivers: whatever they find, whether or not it has anything to do with their training.

Graduates of the Departments of German and Italian cannot expect to find teaching positions in the state system, for these languages are not included in general public education.

The enormous market consisting of adult professionals with very specific requirements is as yet largely undeveloped, on the one hand because these target consumers are themselves unaware of the need to learn to communicate and co-operate in the common European space, and on the other hand because, with the exception of certain very specific cases, study programmes fail to cater for the new social and economic demands. Thus there is a dual problem to be solved: that of the significant waste of human resources and that of the lack of employment for young graduates. Nor does this problem concern solely the departments of German and Italian, but also those of English and French.

This said, it should be made clear that graduates of language programmes can expect to pursue teaching careers. As a rule, language teaching is the sole outlet for language graduates. State schools do absorb large numbers of graduates, but at a fairly slow rate. A small number of the better qualified (good mastery of the language, knowledge of a second recognised language, post-graduate studies, etc.) are recruited by the private sector or by professional training institutes, which they leave when a position in the state system becomes available. In certain cases, finances permitting, they found their own language schools or continue their studies in view of an academic career.

Other career possibilities exist in the service sector: translation services, private lessons preparing candidates for specific language examinations, or secretarial positions in large companies.

Mention must also be made of those rare graduates who, better qualified and informed than the general run, find jobs in Community offices and services.

3. INITIAL AND IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF LANGUAGE TEACHERS

The concept of training, both initial and in-service, with respect to objectives, content, methodology and, of course, assessment, is perceived and interpreted by those concerned in a variety of ways.

The term "training" entered teachers' vocabularies after the overthrow of the junta, in the late 70s, when educational reform was presented as a social demand. The demands of the teachers of that period led to, among other things, the creation of Regional Training Schools or Centres. These centres, still under the aegis of the Ministry of Education, have since operated under different names and systems, sometimes on an annual basis, sometimes on a trimestrial basis. They are open to teachers of all disciplines, including language teachers. A recent Presidential Decree has added to their functions that of initial teacher training ("introductory" training).

3.1. Initial training

A university degree has always been considered proof of the qualifications necessary for a teaching career: any graduate who wished a teaching position would apply to the Ministry of Education and eventually be appointed to some position. Thus, initial training, being identified with university studies, did not exist in the form of professional training specially oriented towards teaching.

But the length of time between graduation from university and appointment to a teaching position, especially in conjunction with the gap between the content of university programmes and the requirements of the teaching profession, has recently raised the issue of initial professional training: a Presidential Decree which came into effect in 1993 introduced a programme of initial training sessions aimed at all teachers in primary and secondary schools, including language teachers. Attempts to implement this decree in 1993 and 1994 have not been encouraging. As this report is being prepared, a new proposal is being formulated and will be implemented on an experimental basis in May 1995.

3.1.1. Institutions responsible for training

Apart from the universities, the only institutions responsible for teacher training (including the training of language teachers) are the Regional Training Centres. These have only recently become initial training centres, and for the last three years have organised training sessions for graduates on the "waiting list" for teaching positions. On completion of their programme, trainees were entitled to work as substitute teachers for those on in-service training programmes, or could be appointed to a full-time position in the state system. This system has been suspended temporarily, pending restructuring of these Centres' programmes.

The use of the term introductory, instead of initial, training adopted for the Training Centers could be significant; it could indicate that this is not an initial training but one that prepares trainees for their entry in the classroom. It must be noted, however, that the objectives and contents of this training are not clearly spelled out. Moreover, the idea of giving these institutions the responsibility for an initial training independent of university studies does not seem very probable. What does appear possible, on the other hand, is that universities will be called upon to meet the need for sound initial training by a radical reform of their programmes.

3.1.2. Content of training programmes

At the moment of writing, there are no specific initial training programmes or curricula being implemented. The text of the Presidential Decree, however, provides for three categories of training material:

a) "general" subjects to do with the educational system, classroom realities, the role of the teacher and classroom psychology and pedagogy;
b) "sectorial" subjects, dealing with teaching the various subjects included in the school programme, methods, textbooks, equipment;
c) practical exercises on classroom activities : marking students' work, selecting examination questions, lesson preparation, classroom observation.

This programme is the same for future teachers at both the primary and the secondary level.

It should be made clear that the experiment to be carried out in May 1995 is designed only for teachers in active service.

3.1.3. Structure of programmes

According to the official text, introductory training programmes may not exceed four months and are designed to prepare future teachers for the classroom. The programmes designed for future language teachers as implemented in 1994-95 included a number of courses compulsory for all teachers, and a number of hours devoted to specific teaching methods for the language in question (French or English).

Trainees were assessed by written examination in all subjects; they were also required to write a dissertation on a subject of their choice.

3.1.4. Impact of Community programmes to date

Given that there are practically no initial training institutions, Community programmes have had no impact in this field.

This notwithstanding, the programmes implemented to date have received substantial Community support.

3.2. In-service training

As has already been stated in the introduction to this chapter, in-service training was first introduced about twenty years ago. Since then, twenty French teachers and twenty English teachers have been invited each year to follow the training programme provided by the in-service training Centres. These Centres, however (formerly known as "Schools"), seem gradually to have lost the confidence of the teaching profession. They have also lost what usefulness they may have had, given that teachers are no longer subject to assessment, and neither schools nor the system itself ever have been so subject.

In the aforementioned Presidential Decree, the Ministry has reacted to the widespread discrediting of this institution with an attempt to reignite the dying (if not already defunct) interest of the teaching body. This decree proposes an in-service training programme addressed to all active teachers in primary and secondary schools, including language teachers. The Regional Training Centres have been implementing this programme for two years now, but the results have not been encouraging.

The Regional Training Centres are thus preparing a new version of the programme, to be implemented in May 1995. The following paragraphs reflect the content of this new proposal as it appears in the official texts drawn up by the Regional Training Centres and currently distributed to all primary and secondary schools.

3.2.1. Institutions responsible for training

In-service training is the responsibility of Regional Training Centres, which are decentralised institutions located in all major cities and depending directly on the Ministry of Education. They are governed by a Co-ordinating Council responsible for proposing, organising and setting up training programmes, as well as for the internal organisation and regulations of the Training Centre. The Administrative Director of each Centre sees that the programmes are properly implemented, and has final authority over both the members of the teaching and administrative staff and the trainees. He is also responsible for settling all questions relating to the content of the training programmes. The administrative staff and the provisional or permanent training staff are drawn from all educational fields. At present, the Councils of these Centres have just made public their proposals for new training programmes, which they are to implement on an experimental basis in May 1995.

3.2.2. Content of training programmes

The content of these programmes is indicated by the titles of the fields of study, grouped in three categories:

a) "general" subjects to do with the educational system, classroom realities, the role of the teacher and classroom psychology and pedagogy;
b) "sectorial" subjects, dealing with teaching the various subjects included in the school programme, methods, textbooks, equipment;
c) practical exercises on classroom activities : marking students' work, selecting examination questions, lesson preparation, classroom observation.

These subjects are the same as those prescribed for initial training programmes (see 3.1.2.).

The programmes currently being prepared for experimental implementation in May 1995 reflect these categories, and include all the subjects prescribed by the Decree. Some of the suggested programmes contain only "general" subjects: Plastic arts, Theatre, Interpersonal relations, Child psychology, Current social problems (AIDS, drugs, etc.); while others contain only "sectorial" subjects: The teaching of Mathematics, Languages, Biology, Physics, Computer science, etc. Trainees are invited to choose from among these programmes, each of which is focused on a different subject, the one they prefer. Each Centre has its own list of programmes, which vary from Centre to Centre.

It should be noted that the official texts presenting the content of these new programmes stress certain features which they describe as "innovative". Teachers are invited to select the programme which interests them. 2. The programmes are both intensive and specialised. 3. The programmes will operate on the sidelines of the school programme, in the perspective of the adoption of the four-day school week, with one day set aside for training. 4. Teachers enrolling in these programmes will be remunerated.") These features are new, in the sense that they have not previously existed; but in this particular case it is difficult to distinguish between what is innovative and what is merely new.

The objectives of these "experimental programmes" to be implemented in May 1995 have not been spelled out. Nor does the text of the Decree specify the objectives of the various types of training programme prescribed. This makes it very difficult to discern a training policy.

It should be noted that language teaching should not expect the current situation will be improved by the training programme proposed in the official texts of this new initiative. It would appear that this training programme seeks the answers to the questions it raises in the fields of pedagogy and psychopedagogy. The question which remains is whether it will find them.

3.2.3. Structure of programmes

The "programmes" the Training Centres offers its trainee teachers consist of various series of courses focused on a specific subject (see 3.2.2.), and covered by 16 to 32 hours of teaching: 4 hours a week over a period of 4-8 weeks. Each trainee may select only one "programme". The programmes are independent of one another, and thus do not form a modular system; they are rather linear and isolated, and apparently unstructured.

3.2.4. Impact of Community programmes to date

Between 1990 and 1994, according to data supplied by the national institution administering scholarships within the framework of the LINGUA programme, 505 secondary school language teachers went to another European country to study. It is, however, difficult to say what if any impact this has had, at least within the context of the Training Centres.

On the other hand - and this is very important - the money to operate these Centres (equipment, staff and trainee salaries, etc.) comes from Community funds.

3.3. Training of teachers of second language

Does not exist.

4. LANGUAGE PROVISION IN UNIVERSITIES FOR STUDENTS OF OTHER DISCIPLINES

4.1. Language studies integrated into non-language programmes and language options offered in combination with non-language programmes

Do not exist. Co-operation between language teachers in language departments and teaching staff in other disciplines depends on the goodwill of the staff and students of the language department, and on each department's academic and administrative authorities.

4.2. General and subject-oriented language courses accompanying non-language programmes

In all Greek universities students take at least one language course; but in most departments this is neither compulsory nor credited. In rare instances "language competency" is a prerequisite for obtention of a diploma, in which case the language course is worth one or two credits. Students with a certificate of competence in a foreign language are dispensed from taking the language course otherwise required by their department.

4.2.1. Content and objectives

Although this has never been explicitly formulated, the objective of such courses is obvious to all concerned: to enable the student to consult foreign bibliography and to communicate with speakers of the language in question. But these courses are not an integral, or even a "combined", part of the curriculum: they are independent, merely reflecting the discipline of the department to which the student belongs, and it is the instructor who has the final say in the content of the course (material, method, technical means, etc.).

In virtually all instances, the first half of the course is designed to provide a "general acquaintanceship" with the language in question, while the second half is oriented towards the student's own discipline, through the teaching of the "terminology" of his particular field.

Four languages are offered: English, French (almost everywhere), German (less frequently) and Italian (even less frequently). Russian is taught in Crete. The students choose one of the languages offered. The material used is generally a textbook selected from among those generally available. Instructors often make use of "authentic documenta" taken from the bibliography of the field in question; there are also rare cases of instructors better trained and more attuned to the requirements of the non-language student, who prepare ad hoc "packages" of material and make use of teaching practices appropriate to the nature of the discipline in question.

It should be noted that the content of such courses is appreciated neither by the students nor by the instructors, who would feel better if the guidelines were more definite or if there were a proper curriculum, which at the moment is not the case.

4.2.2. Structure of courses

These courses last from two to six semesters, each department being free to select the formula it finds most appropriate to its own programme. The student may interrupt the continuity or the order of semesters, to suit his needs and his timetable. Language courses occupy two hours a week, and the student is assessed by written examination at the end of each semester.

It should also be noted that in certain cases the language courses offered students of non-language disciplines are organised by some foreign language centre, and not by the university department. Such centres have no connection with the departments, but depend directly on the university administration; the courses they offer are independent of the structure of the university departments, but the latter are taken into consideration. In such cases students choosing a language course apply directly to the language centre, rather than to the administration of the department. This happens in the University of Thessaloniki, where several departments decided to eliminate their language courses, because they were not really integrated into the various departmental programmes and because it was felt that students who already know one foreign language do not need these courses, which only burden the curriculum for one or two extra credits.

4.2.3. Impact of Community programmes to date

Several foreign language instructors from Greek universities have made use of Community bursaries to spend short periods of time in another European institution. Such visits have had no measurable impact on the content or structure of their programmes.

Those students who made use of Community scholarships under the ERASMUS programme to study abroad were already competent in the language of the host country (candidates for Community scholarships are generally required to take a test assessing their mastery of the language in question before their names can be submitted by the co-ordinator).

This said, it should be noted that there is more and more negative criticism of these courses by the instructors themselves; this is very likely the result of contact and exchanges with other universities, with different approaches to language teaching programmes.

5. THE TRAINING OF TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS

5.1. Institutions responsible for training

There are only two institutions which train translators, of which one also trains interpreters. The professional translators and interpreters working in Greece have generally been trained in one of the specialised European institutions. Greece has not been able to maintain an institution of this type: the Training Center for Translators and Interpreters founded in Corfu about twenty years ago was soon assimilated by the Ionian University, becoming the Department of Languages, Translation and Interpreting.

This department is one of the two in Greece in which translation is both a field of study and a field of research, and the only one for interpreting; it is an independent department with an intake of 30 students a year.

The second institution which deals with translation is the Translation Sector of the French Department of the University of Thessaloniki. This is new unit, recently set up, which is expected to begin functioning in 1996. It is not really designed to train professional translators, but is one of three departmental sectors which, like the other two, offers the department's 700 active students an additional field of specialisation. It should be made clear, however, that this new unit is still in its preliminary preparation phase, and must be taken into consideration in this light.

5.2. Content of training programmes

The programme to be offered by the University of Thessaloniki has not yet been determined. The debate on this subject within the department (proceedings of the general assemblies of the Linguistics Sector, March/April 1995) indicates that the initial objective of the Translation Sector (training and research in translation and translation science) is gradually being re-oriented towards professional training, with the focus on market demand rather than academic criteria. The issue will not be decided before the end of this academic year, and the programmes will not be ready before the summer of 1996.

The programme of the relevant department of the Ionian University, on the other hand, has been applied for about ten years now. It includes the study of three languages and civilisations (English, French and German), of which the student must choose two. Courses includes material on civilisation, history and language, as well as practical training in translation and interpreting. Courses are classed as either compulsory or optional, and students must complete a prescribed number of credits, as in other University departments (see also 2.1.2.). Students are assessed at the end of each semester by a separate examination in each subject.

It should perhaps be noted that despite the experience of some of the teaching staff, the conditions in which this department operates do not permit it to achieve its objectives: on the one hand,the extremely limited linguistic competence of the student body and the limited number of qualified staff, and the academic structure of the department on the other, are substantial constraints which, by inhibiting the development of professional competence in its students, prevent this department from becoming a truly effective training centre.

5.3. Structure of programmes

The structure of these programmes follows that of all other Greek university departments. Courses of study covers a minimum of eight semesters (see 2.1.2.), and include both compulsory and optional subjects, some of which are prerequisites and must precede certain others. Each subject carries a certain number of credits, varying from 1 to 3. The student is free to choose the subjects he is most interested in, in order to complete the required number of credits. In other words, apart from the compulsory, core subjects, which are the same for all students, the composition and structure of the programme is at the discretion of the student (N.1268/82).

5.4. Impact of Community programmes to date

These two institutions have certainly benefited from Community programmes, particularly in their participation in mobile student programmes. The impact of Community programmes is evident in the creation of the Translation Sector in the University of Thessaloniki, inspired (according to its sponsors : Proceedings of the Department of French Language and Literature, 1993) by activities within the framework of Community programmes.

5.5. Career prospects outside the area of translating and interpreting

Theoretically at least, the career prospects of students completing one or other of the programmes described above are not the same. While the institutional framework permits graduates of language departments, to whom a career in the teaching profession is automatically open, to work as translators as well, it does not permit graduates of the Translation Department to occupy teaching positions.

In practice, however, this is frequently ignored, and both professions appear to be open to graduates of either department.

The business world offers a third career choice to qualified language graduates.

6. LANGUAGE STUDIES IN NON-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

6.1. Language programmes

Do not exist.

6.2. Language studies integrated into non-language programmes and language options offered in combination with non-language programmes

The study of a foreign language is compulsory in all Vocational and Technical Higher Education institutions (TEI), and courses are integrated into the programme.

6.2.1. Content and objectives

Vocational and Technical Higher Education institutions (TEI) offer a choice of five languages to their students: English (chosen by the vast majority), French (15%), German (10%), Italian (rarely chosen) and Russian (0-1%). However, the lack of both competent instructors and student demand means that in practice only English, and in some special fields French (cosmetology) or German (tourism) are taught. There seems to be no interest in Russian.

The objective of these language programmes is stated briefly but perfectly clearly in the outline law (N.1404/83, art. 5) : "...to be able to understand texts in the student's particular field".

The same article also prescribes that language courses are compulsory subjects; students are also entitled to select a second language course, as an option. Course content is left to the instructor, who is required to select material which reinforces and completes the vocational training programme.

Instructors also choose their own approach, and may prepare their own ad hoc material.

6.2.2. Structure of courses

Language courses are an integral part of the student's programme, beginning in the second semester. The language programme is supposed to cover four semesters, but not infrequently technical or practical considerations limit language instruction to only two semesters.

Students who already know a foreign language may be dispensed from the language courses, which remain compulsory for all others.

6.2.3. Impact of Community programmes to date

There has been no visible impact on language courses in these programmes.

7. NEW NEEDS IN THE AREA OF LANGUAGE STUDIES

NOTE : The information in this section is not the result of systematic research, but rather the gleanings of discussions with people interested in or responsible for identifying needs and requirements in the area of language study and, consequently, of deficiencies and gaps in existing language programmes and courses, as well as in the institutional framework.

7.1. In undergraduate and post-graduate programmes offered by universities

7.1.1. Seen in relation to the development of language studies

Despite their attempts at innovation, university programmes remain captives of their past, and have proven inflexible and incapable of adapting to the needs of today's society. Certain deficiencies in both content and implementation are easily identified. Here are some of the most obvious:

• lack of material on current social problems and phenomena (bilingualism, migration, interculturalism)
• lack of qualified teaching staff with expertise in new fields
• lack of adequate classroom space
• lack of resources and technological infrastructure
• lack of material and institutional possibilities for exchanges and co-operation between groups of students or researchers.

7.1.2. Seen in relation to professional requirements

University programmes are generally accused of out-moded "ivory-towerishness" and unjustifiable snobbery, given the growing numbers of unemployed graduates. The gap between university studies and the requirements of the working world is growing steadily, owing to the deficiencies inherent in the programmes and requirements related to the application of the object of study. Some of the more essential requirements include :

• hands-on training sessions
• links with the private education sector
• co-operation or exchanges between secondary schools and universities, as well as between "town and gown"
• special preparation for teaching addressed to adult professionals
• professional training programmes at post-graduate level
• specialisations relating to employment and the economy.

7.1.3. Seen in relation to the creation of Europe

Participation in community inter-university co-operation programmes has been very beneficial to the language departments of Greek universities, revolutionising the attitudes of both staff and students. Nonetheless, university programmes have apparently not adapted to the new Europe, and still display the same gaps and deficiencies. Some of the most frequently encountered are:

• no provision for distance learning, for isolated, remote or handicapped persons or groups
• lack of the technical infrastructure necessary to accomodate distance co-operation and the setting-up of joint or integrated programmes
• need to decompartmentalize programmes and to learn more than one foreign language
• lack of subject matter on Europe, the target area of students' preparation, of Community programmes and actions, and of European integration.

7.2. In initial and in-service language teacher training

7.2.1. Seen in relation to the development of language studies

Initial and in-service training seems designed to maintain an educational system which it ought to be trying to change by the transformation of the teaching body. Without specifying its objectives, it restricts itself to the pedagogical and psychological material required for the transmission of information, and displays deficiencies of which it appears quite unaware, including the need to:

• establish objectives related to the needs of today's teachers and schools
• up-date knowledge, and to teach trainees how to find the information they require
• review methodological approaches and teaching/learning techniques
• broaden the horizon of scientific resources in the field of verbal and non-verbal communication, by making use of the data deriving from research in allied disciplines.

7.2.2. Seen in relation to professional requirements

Greece's teachers, trained at the universities, lack real professional training. They also display glaring deficiencies on the linguistic and communicative levels, given today's subjects of reference. Teacher training ought therefore to be designed both to fill these gaps and to develop professional competence and know-how, instead of being limited to the transmission of knowledge. Some of the gaps include:

• the need to develop professional competence and know-how
• the need to acquire the tools necessary to analyse the requirements of a given group of students
• the need to learn to develop material adapted to specific requirements
• the need to make use of today's technical tools, etc.

7.2.3. Seen in relation to the creation of Europe

Training programmes lack the objectives and procedures necessary to satisfy such needs as:

• the need to learn to work with others and to collaborate
• the need to be able to communicate in inter-cultural or inter-linguistic situations
• the need to learn to move around in Europe
• the need to learn about European Institutions, resources and programmes
• the need to learn to participate in Community programmes.

7.3. In language provision in universities for students of other disciplines

7.3.1. Seen in relation to the development of language studies

The deficiencies in the language programmes provided for students of other, non-language, disciplines are so extensive as to render them completely ineffective. These include:

• the lack of harmonisation between the language course and the main programme
• the lack of contact and co-operation with the language departments
• lack of curricula and ad hoc material
• lack of motivation among the teaching staff, whose salaries are the lowest of all categories of teachers in Greece's public education system
• lack of motivation among the students as well, with respect to these language courses at least
• lack of an adequate system for the assessment of both the course and the performance of the students
• complete lack of technological equipment and infrastructure.

7.3.2. Seen in relation to professional requirements

The deficiencies here are similar to those described in paragraph 7.1.:

• lack of connection between university programmes and the world of work, especially with regard to career possibilities; this makes it impossible both for students to realise just how important foreign languages are, and to assess the required level of competence.
• lack of professional attitudes and skills
• lack of systems and means for retraining; this is at the moment up to each individual
• the need to analyse the requirements of the various professions in order to draw up properly targeted curricula
• lack of access to information.

7.3.3. Seen in relation to the creation of Europe

• the need for relations and exchanges with other European institutions
• the need to learn to work with others and to collaborate
• the need to be able to communicate in inter-cultural or inter-linguistic situations
• the need for teachers themselves to learn more than one foreign language.

7.4. In the training of translators and interpreters

The following points should be emphasized:

7.4.1. Seen in relation to the development of language studies

• the need for harmonisation between programme objectives and approaches and subject matter
• the need for basic general information (inter-cultural or inter-linguistic situations)
• lack of material and equipment (lack of technological infrastructure and qualified staff)
• the need for practical, hands-on training.

7.4.2. Seen in relation to professional requirements

• lack of opportunity for hands-on training in real situations and conditions
• lack of even visual experience of events requiring the services of interpreters
• lack of means permitting students and instructors to travel
• isolation from major international institutions of translators and interpreters.

7.4.3. Seen in relation to the creation of Europe

• the need to train professional translators and interpreters with the competence required in the European context : they must have access to sources of information and be able to profit from European resources; distance programmes or training opportunities could also be developed
• the need for contact with major Community institutions
• the need for access to the expertise of the major European organisations of translators and interpreters.

7.5. In language studies in non-university institutions of higher education

7.5.1. In language programmes

Non-university institutions of higher education (TEI) do not have language programmes. And yet there are needs which the universities are not in a position to meet.

There is certainly a need for language programmes in vocational training (e.g. bilingual or multi-lingual secretaries, tourist guides, etc.), as well as for a variety of language services which a systematic analysis of market requirements could easily determine.

7.5.2. In language provision for non-language students

7.5.2.1. Seen in relation to the development of language studies

 There are also deficiencies in the field of language courses provided for non-language students:

• lack of resources and expertise; need to escape from empiricism
• lack of planning with respect to curricula and ad hoc material
• lack of motivation
• lack of an adequate system for the assessment of both the course and the performance of the students
• lack of competence in the use of existing equipment and technological infrastructure.

7.5.2.2. Seen in relation to professional requirements

The deficiencies here are similar to those described in paragraph 7.3.:

• lack of connection between university programmes and the world of work, especially with regard to career possibilities; this makes it impossible both for students to realise just how important foreign languages are, and to assess the required level of competence.
• the need to analyse the requirements of the various professions in order to draw up properly targeted curricula
• lack of professional attitudes and skills
• lack of systems and means for retraining teachers; this is at the moment up to each individual
• lack of access to information.

7.5.2.3. Seen in relation to the creation of Europe

• the need for relations and exchanges with other European institutions
• the need to learn to work with others and to collaborate
• the need to be able to communicate in inter-cultural or inter-linguistic situations
• the need for teachers themselves to learn more than one foreign language.

8. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN TO SATISFY THE NEEDS IDENTIFIED

8.1. Measures to be taken in the areas of initial and in-service language teacher training

8.1.1. Measures within the responsibility of the institutions

Programmes should be set up to promote co-operation between training institutions and university language departments for the purpose of:

• developing integrated programmes
• developing ad hoc programmes dealing with specific issues (teaching adults, systems for the recognition of specific needs, etc)
• organising intensive short retraining sessions
• long training sessions to train training instructors
• developing curricula and material for training programmes.

8.1.2. Measures within the responsibility of the national and regional authorities

The legislation on training programmes needs to be modified in order to provide a new framework linking training institutions and university departments to foster the development of:

• integrated programmes, whereby students do their practical training in trainee teacher classes and trainee teachers take their theoretical classes within the university departments
• action research projects (e.g., looking for new classroom material, identifying language needs in the social context of the school, etc.).

Existing legislation should also be modified to provide for programmes establishing co-operation between training institutions, university departments and target institutions (public and private schools) for the purpose of

• continual assessment of the product of training programmes
• developing training curricula better adapted to requirements
• set up training methods and procedures leading to the development of professional skills.

Legislation should also provide for the introduction of

• programmes addressed particularly to language teachers
• criteria for the selection of training instructors
• training procedures based on research projects
• incentives to encourage teachers to apply for retraing programmes (seniority, promotion, choice of position)
• more scholarships to supplement those offered by the EU.

8.1.3. Measures within the responsibility of the European Union

Community action to exploit the expertise developed within the framework of the ERASMUS and LINGUA programmes would be desirable, in order to promote and support projects designed to meet the needs identified. The EU could promote measures like:

New scholarship programmes facilitating access to the countries of the languages taught, for the purpose of :

• improving teachers' language and communication skills
• selecting authentic material for the production of new teaching material
• developing programmes promoting co-operation between teachers and classes.

New scholarship programmes facilitating access to the countries of less spoken languages, for the purpose of :

• "language exchanges" (teachers would teach their own language and learn that of the host country)
• training teachers capable of teaching more than one language.

Further objectives include:

• setting up co-operation programmes designed to provide concerted training through the development of joint programmes
• the creation of "banks" of training material and equipment with a view to making users aware of new resources and new technological possibilities
• making use of new technology to set up distance co-operation networks
• developing programmes for and setting up distance training networks.

8.2. Measures to be taken in universities (outside the area of teacher training)

8.2.1. Measures within the responsibility of the institutions

Adaptation of their training and research activities to the new realities. This means:

• developing new programmes or courses on the teaching of second languages and the teaching of foreign languages to professional people
• identifying the requirements of the target area of the trainee
• defining the objectives of training programmes
• introducing contents and procedures adapted to target application
• rating research topics in relation to the requirements of the social environment
• introducing programme assessment systems based on the results of the training received.

Promotion of exchanges with primary and secondary schools in order to:

• develop integrated programmes and research project programmes
• set up intensive short retraining programmes
• create a professional diploma acknowledging initial teacher training, either within the framework of the post-graduate cycle, or as a Master's diploma based on fourth year work
• development of curricula and material focusing on special fields
• developing multimedia training material.

Promotion of exchanges with other local, regional and European institutions and organisations :

• making use of Community programmes
• exploiting the possibilities of modern technology
• making use of data banks and other sources of information to keep up with innovations and research in associated disciplines
• developing mechanisms to monitor the changing requirements of language services.

8.2.2. Measures within the responsibility of the national and regional authorities

Provide scholarships supplementing those available from the EU, for all future teachers.

Encourage and support co-operation between the universities and the world of work by:

• developing integrated theoretical and practical programmes
• setting up workshops for the purpose of identifying changing language requirements
• creating a joint professional diploma acknowledging specialised initial and in-service training, either within the framework of the post-graduate cycle, or as a Master's diploma based on fourth year work
• developing multimedia training material
• developing joint research programmes for distance learning and developing self-training packages for specialisation languages.

Encourage and support language learning in all types of services and working environments.

8.2.3. Measures within the responsibility of the European Union

It is to be hoped that the EU will continue to encourage co-operation within Europe and with the rest of the world. Some projects which could be supported include:

• the development of common courses and diplomas
• graduate exchange programmes for practical training sessions in the target language country
• setting up European research workshops to develop and produce new training material and methods
• setting up co-operation programmes aimed at promoting concerted training and developing joint training programmes
• the creation of "banks" of training material and equipment for the purpose of sharing resources
• making use of the possibilities of new technology to set up distance co-operation networks
• developing programmes for and setting up distance training networks
• joint research projects between European and international institutions on particular subjects (e.g., assessing training programmes)
• setting up scholarship programmes for all future teachers and their instructors.

The EU could also adopt (or suggest that member states adopt) measures designed to reinforce existing infrastructures (technological assistance for the various departments, in-put or exchanges of know-how, etc.).

8.3. Measures to be taken in non-university institutions of higher education (outside the area of teacher training)

8.3.1. Measures within the responsibility of the institutions

Promotion of interaction with the world of work by:

• identifying the requirements of the target area of the field of training
• developing integrated programmes for theoretical and practical language training
• co-operation with university language departments
• creating language departments oriented towards professions other than teaching
• developing curricula and training material specialised in particular fields
• developing multimedia training material.

8.3.2. Measures within the responsibility of the national and regional authorities

Encourage and support co-operation with the world of work by:

• developing integrated theoretical and practical programmes
• setting up workshops to identify and monitor changing language requirements in all administrative and economic areas (Chambers, Industry, Business, etc.)
• developing multimedia training material
• developing language learning (including self-teaching) programmes in all job areas.

8.3.3. Measures within the responsibility of the European Union

The EU could continue to encourage co-operation between institutions, promoting measures like:

• support for projects aimed at developing and producing new language learning material
• setting up co-operation programmes for the purpose of professional training for language services other than teaching
• the creation of "banks" of training material and equipment for the purpose of sharing resources
• making use of the possibilities of new technology to set up distance co-operation networks
• setting up scholarship programmes for all students (with the exception of future teachers) and their instructors.

The EU could also adopt (or suggest that member states adopt) measures designed to reinforce existing infrastructures (technological assistance for the various departments, in-put or exchanges of know-how, etc.).