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SIGMA Scientific Committee on Languages |
Althea Ryan
Department of English, Århus University
DK - 8000 Århus C, Denmark
The national language is Danish. Other languages are spoken by small minorities of immigrants from Turkey, Sri Lanka, former Yugoslavia, Lebanon, etc. (in toto about 3% of the population).
(i) Official policy: Insofar as there is a language policy, this is only reflected in the education system. The first foreign language for Danes is clearly English, which is an obligatory school subject from the fourth form (age 10 years). Most Danes under the age of about 50 can communicate quite well in everyday English. German and French are the second and third foreign languages respectively. Neither is compulsory, but German must be offered to all pupils from age 13, and French may be offered as an alternative to German. From age 16 both must be offered. Some second- level schools also offer Spanish, Russian, and Italian, and there is experimental teaching in Japanese in one or two schools.
The general policy as regards immigrant languages is one of integration: primary schools are required to offer special classes in Danish as a second language to minority language children, and refugees are required to attend Danish classes. There is no definite policy as regards mother tongue teaching of minority language children, which is a controversial issue. Decisions on this are the prerogative of the Minister of Education. At the moment there is very little such teaching in the state school system.
(ii) Attitudes and the influence of the media and tourism: There is very strong linguistic and cultural influence from English, particularly American, through TV, film, music and literature. There is also a positive attitude to English in the population (particularly to British among older generations, and American among younger). The surrounding countries also exert quite a strong but weakening influence in areas able to receive the national TV channels, though the picture is now confused by cable TV, e.g. German in southern Jutland and on Funen, Swedish on Zealand. This influence is realized as considerable receptive competence. German influence on the Jutland West coast is quite strong due to summer tourism, often accompanied however by negative attitudes. Danes tend to be surprised (and delighted) if a foreigner speaks Danish, and coming from a small language area they realize the necessity of learning an international language. English is basically regarded as the international lingua franca.
The system consists of state funded higher educational institutions of basically three types: 12 universities or equivalent degree awarding institutions with research facilities, 18 teacher training colleges (Lærerseminarier), and a number of specialist colleges (-skoler) in a range of subjects, e.g. social work, infant care, engineering, journalism, architecture, health sciences, performing arts, etc.. There are no available statistics but a rough estimate suggests an intake of about 35,000 new students in 1994-5.
The university institutions offer the following degrees in the humanities (in order of increasing prestige): BA, Candidate, Magister, Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy. Other institutions offer diplomas related to specific professions.
This degree system is new. BA and Ph.D. degree programmes are being introduced at the moment in accordance with new legislation. The 'older' Danish degree types (Candidate, Magister, Doctor) are available as well as the 'new' degrees. The aim is presumably a gradual adaptation of the Danish system along British/American lines. There is widespread dissatisfaction with the new system, this is partly due to its complexity, but also to the fact that the new BA is shorter and less specialized than the former first degree, the Candidate.
The Candidate type of degree is the original Danish degree, and is still regarded by many people as the first degree. In addition a Danish Doctor of Philosophy degree may be obtained by presentation of a thesis which must be a research-based major published work or collection of published works. This degree can only be awarded after a lecture and public defence.
There are two methods of admission to first degree or diploma programmes. 1) Performance in the school leaving exam (Studentereksamen) taken at age 19. 2) A number of places are allocated via a points system which takes into account exam grades, work experience, travel abroad, and other experience. At teacher training colleges 75% of the intake is by method 2.
The academic year consists of two semesters usually starting mid-August/beginning September and mid-January/beginning February. There are slight variations depending on the type of institution.
Degrees/diplomas are awarded on the basis of a cumulative exam system. Each course of study entails passing a certain number of exams which may be taken as and when the student desires within certain limits. This has in the past led to very long periods of study, especially at university. Restrictions in the new system, together with a more restrictive system of grants, are aimed at preventing this.
Students may enter university/college on leaving secondary school (Gymnasium) at the age of 19 after 12/13 years of schooling. However, increasingly many school-leavers choose to spend a year or more working at home or abroad before taking up their university/college place. Danish students are therefore relatively mature, and given the structure of the Danish system to date (5 or 6 year degrees and freedom to take exams in any order and when desired), the age at graduation from university has been and still is relatively high (often between 25 and 30).
The Danish school system has two levels. Schooling starts at age seven and attendance at the primary level schools (Folkeskole) is compulsory up to grade 9 (age 15). There is a 10th optional grade. Second-level schools (Gymnasium) have 3 grades (ages 15/16-18/19). English is a compulsory subject taught from 4th grade (age 10) in folkeskole through the first two grades in gymnasium. German and French are optional subjects in folkeskole starting at the 7th grade (age13). All folkeskoler must offer German, but they do not have to offer French. Thus pupils continuing to second-level education all have English but they may not have another foreign language.
Pupils choosing to continue to gymnasium enter one of two 'lines': the language line or the mathematics line. In the maths line English and one other foreign language are compulsory for the first two years. This other language may be taken at beginners' level or as a continuation of the folkeskole teaching. In the language line English and two other languages are compulsory for the first two years, and pupils may be beginners in one or both of these other languages. In the third year pupils in both lines may choose which (if any) languages to study (maximum 3). All schools teach English, French, and German, some offer Spanish, Russian, and Italian, and one or two offer Japanese. A very few Gymnasiums have recently started 'International' lines, where a significant proportion of the teaching is carried on through the medium of a foreign language (usually English), and where the curriculum has been 'internationalized'.
Entrance to the Commercial Universities (Handelshøjskoler) is also possible from second-level business schools (Handelsskoler), which have a curriculum including business- related subjects (e.g. economics). English is an compulsory subject, and other languages are available.
It can be seen from this overview that foreign languages are compulsory throughout the second-level school system, building on up to 7 years teaching at the primary level (dependent on the language). And that English is predominant: all school- leavers with a diploma of second level-education (Studentereksamen) will have had at least 9 years of English. Some universities now have high levels of proficiency in English as an entrance requirement to most courses of study. The humanities may also require a second foreign language.
Language studies at university level can be divided into three categories: English, those languages which require previous study at secondary level, and those which do not.
It is clear that in English the university entry proficiency level is high. From the beginning English medium teaching can be used, and written and oral work can be carried out in English.
German, French and sometimes Spanish fall into the second category, where between three and five years study can be expected. The student's initial proficiency (especially in Spanish) is lower than with English, therefore at the beginning of the course of studies not all classes can take place through the medium of the language.
All other languages are subsumed under the third category. Some students (of Russian, Italian and exceptionally Japanese) will have some basic initial proficiency, but most will start their university studies with intensive beginners' level language courses (usually one year). These include the following Community languages: Dutch, Finnish, modern Greek, Portuguese.
Note that attendance at classes is generally not obligatory for students at Danish university institutions. Mention of 'compulsory' courses refers to the fact that a pass in the examination for the course is a compulsory part of the degree.
Courses of a more traditional type are offered at the five universities. The three 'old' universities offer a range of languages: English, German, French, Spanish, Russian, Dutch, Italian, Portuguese. The two new universities (Universitetscenter) offer English, German, French (and Spanish). Other languages are offered at one or two of the 'old' universities: Finnish, Hungarian, modern Greek, Slavic languages, Hindi, Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, etc.. Swedish and Norwegian have a special status as 'mutually intelligible' languages with Danish. Short contrastive courses are offered at some universities together with Danish or Nordic studies.
Generalization is difficult and even the heading for this section is not strictly applicable as very few of the language courses now offered could be called 'traditional language and literature' courses, though there is still a bias towards literature in many programmes. In recent years most language courses have developed a wider perspective with an increasing emphasis on culture and society in the countries concerned, and less emphasis on literature or historical language studies. At the same time the study of the literature and culture of other countries where the language is spoken, and of other language varieties, forms a larger and larger proportion of the degree courses, e.g. Latin American studies within Spanish and Portuguese courses, American and post-colonial studies with English, Canadian studies with French and English. Additionally, the realization of the new 'communication' society has led to the inclusion of less language-specific subjects related to mass communication and international communication.
Most courses include the following compulsory elements in the first 2-3 years of study: 1) Language: phonetics, grammar, comunicative language proficiency. Possibly history of the language and some general linguistics. 2) Literary theory and the literature of the countries where the language is spoken. The literature may include an outline of the literary history with selected readings, or may be more focussed on literary movements and genres. 3) Culture (e.g. cultural movements, race, gender and religious issues, influences from other cultures), society (e.g. political, social and economic institutions), and history (e.g. a historical outline, or focus on certain periods and developments). In addition there will be general courses in scholarly methods and the history of scientific enquiry. In some departments, subjects such as mass communication, popular culture and gender studies are an integral part of the degree course.
In addition, throughout their studies but especially towards the end of a BA course or in the Candidate programme, students take a number of elective courses from a range of areas both inside and outside their own departments. There is a general tendency for students to focus on literary and cultural or historic subjects. Most of these courses are more specialized than the compulsory ones. Thus a very wide variety of combinations and specializations is possible under the heading of a language degree.
The major objective of the programmes is to produce a highly competent foreign language communicator who is familiar with the cultures and the societies where the language is spoken. At the same time the Candidate degree particularly, with an eye to the need for flexibility in the future work force, aims to develop general abilities as an efficient and effective communicator and learner. Traditionally these graduates have taken up appointments as gymnasium teachers despite the lack of focus in most programmes on linguistic or applied linguistic topics.
The programmes vary considerably in structure (see above 1.2.2. for the length and level of degree programmes), but generally they consist of a number of compulsory courses and a number of elective seminar courses and/or projects (e.g. the degree programmes at Roskilde Universitetscenter are largely based on project work). The proportion of electives usually increases after the second year of the degree. All degrees finish with a project (BA), a dissertation (Candidate) or thesis (Magister and PhD). The requirements for these (e.g. length, originality, research base required) vary according to the degree. At the new universities much of the study is based on project work in groups. This leads to a very great degree of freedom as far as content is concerned. Most electives last one semester (e.g. 2-3 hours per week for between 10 and 15 weeks). Compulsory courses may run over several semesters for a number of hours per week. Much of the teaching takes the form of seminars, with some lecture courses, and project work as mentioned above.
Assessment is by examination on each course, elective, or project. The system is not usually based on credits but on specific exams related to specific courses. These will vary as to weight, but what counts is not the total 'weight' of exams passed, but whether all the specified exams have been passed. The University regulations allow great freedom as to exam type therefore different departments may use very different types of examinations. Very generally, a course may be completed by a written examination (invigilated or a paper written at home), an oral examination (with or without preparation time), or, in a very limited number of cases, continuous assessment (by 'active' attendance at the course). In the Danish system there are a relatively large number of oral examinations. Exams are assessed as either pass/fail, or on a scale of marks out of 13 (!).
This system of assessment is not geared to transferablility, even transfer between institutions within Denmark is difficult, let alone transfer from another country. Each case has to be looked at individually and the courses taken at other institutions have to be compared to the courses/exams required, to see if the content and level requirements have been fulfilled.
It is clear that the Erasmus and Lingua programmes have greatly enhanced Danish students' chances of going abroad. A number of language majors go to a relevant EU country to study for one or two semesters. And a few departments now require language students to spend a period of time at a foreign university.
In 1993/4, of the 1,605 Danish students participating in a mobility programme 179 were language students. This is the third largest exchange area after engineering/technology and business studies/management. The latter probably also includes language students doing combined courses in languages & business (see below 2.2. & 4.1). The number of outgoing students is increasing each year.
At the same time the number of students from other EU countries spending time in Denmark is also increasing. Though here the pattern is different due to the language problem. In all, 1,264 foreign students visited Denmark under EU programmes in 1993/4, about 20% fewer than the outgoing students.
Over and above the possiblity of foreign students coming to study at language departments which already use a foreign language medium (mainly English, German, French), the aim of internationalization has led some institutions to introduce courses (from one semester to two years in length) which are taught through the medium of English, e.g. an English medium internationally-oriented basis course in the humanities, which attracts many EU students; an English medium course in electronic engineering, which runs parallel to the Danish medium course.
Because of the number of foreign students attending Danish university institutions, most of the universities now provide short introductory courses in Danish and Danish culture for these students.
Thus some changes have occurred as a result of increased international student mobility. Danish institutions are attempting to provide support and study opportunities for foreign students, both because the presence of foreign students provides input to the studies here, and in order to redress the imbalance between the number of Danish students going to or wishing to go to Great Britain, and the number of British visiting students.
Apart from increased international awareness and experience on the part of the students and improved language proficiency, one of the inputs from the exchanges is the ability to make quality comparisons across educational systems.
The main type of 'alternative' programme is the BA/Candidate programme in languages with a special emphasis on business use. These programmes are offered at the commercial universities (Handelshøjskoler) and some of the universities. The languages offered are English, French, German, and sometimes Spanish, Italian and Russian.
In this section I have also included a description of Open University programmes (alternative organization, if not alternative content.)
Language for business (Erhvervssprog): These courses include two languages to BA level with a continuation to Candidate level in one or both languages.
The first 3 years (BA) usually include a focus on the following subjects: language proficiency, grammar, business communication, and society with a focus on history, economy and politics. In addition there is the study of business subjects in general and in the relevant countries (e.g. export marketing, management, economics, international business law). In some departments courses in intercultural communication are also included. Students often specialize in their final year, for example, in special language areas (legal/technical/economic language) often including courses in the use of computers (word-processing, databases), or in communication (with the focus on linguistic analysis and cultural differences). On the skills side there is usually a considerable focus on translation, and in general a large proportion of the texts used will be related to society, institutions and business. The aim of the course is to produce graduates with good communicative ability in two foreign languages who can go directly into positions in the business world.
BA graduates have the option of taking an additional 2 years leading to a Candidate degree, in this case they choose a particular focus for their studies. There are several possibilites (not the same at all institutions): translation and interpreting, computer linguistics, sign language, business communication and information technology, language and international relations (2.5 years, including 6 months work abroad or in an international organization). Advanced study in at least one foreign language is an integral part these courses. The aim is to produce specialists in particular fields of relevance to international business and communication, who also have a broad basic knowledge of business methods, and a detailed knowledge of and ability to use foreign languages. Some of the specializations are designed to lead on to research in the field, others to appointment as expert staff in export businesses, international organizations and government institutions. Thus, these degrees are far more job- oriented than the traditional humanities language degrees.
Open University (OU): There are several types of language course available. Some of these are not available in the standard university system.
It is possible to do some of the language degrees (BA) through Open University study. They have the same content and examinations as full-time degree programmes (see above 2.1), only the form is different (distance learning, self-financed), and there are no entrance requirements.
In addition a number of students take a 'Correspondent' diploma in one foreign language. This has similar content to a BA in language for business (see above), but is much shorter (2 years part-time study), and only one foreign language is studied. There is also more of a focus on training for a job as a personal assistant. As a follow-up to the 'Correspondent' diploma it is possible to take the Business Language diploma (Erhverssproglig Diplom) which builds on the knowledge and skills attained in the first diploma (thus it does have an entrance requirement). These diplomas are only available through Open University courses.
Occasional other language/culture related courses are offered in the 'open' system. For example, a one year course in American studies. These do not lead to a qualification as such, but can be used as an upgrading of knowledge either out of personal interest or in relation to a job.
Also a programme in Applied Linguistics (four components: language description, intercultural communication, language teaching materials & methodology, and language acquisition) is offered on a regular basis (two years of part- time study). This is at Candidate level and can be used as part of a Candidate degree (see below 2.3. suppleringsuddannelse). Most of the participants are experienced teachers.
The aim of OU programmes is to give people who do not have formal qualifications, or the time to do a full-time course, the opportunity of getting a university education or of upgrading their knowledge and skills. Many of the OU students already have a higher education in another field.
Language for business (Erhvervssprog): These are full-time programmes, a 3-year BA course followed by 2-2.5 additional years for the Candidate degree. In a few cases students are required to spend some time abroad. The type of teaching varies considerably from institution to institution. There may be a focus on lectures and small group classes, or on project work. A large part of the degree course is obligatory but there are always some elective courses, or, in the case of project work, the student chooses topics within very broad topic areas. There is usually more freedom of choice in the second part of the degree (after the BA). Assessment is continuous, each course being assessed by an exam (written, oral, active participation), and the degree being awarded upon successful completion of all the exams. As with all other degrees, students have, within certain limits, considerable freedom of choice as to when to take particular exams.
Open University (OU): The Open University is not a university awarding its own degrees or organizing its own courses. It is the general name used for all the part-time university level courses offered by the different institutions around the country. The OU is a partially self- financing institution, and I believe the political aim is for all courses offered to be entirely self- financing. Students pay fees to attend these courses (regular university students do not pay fees).
There is no standardization of course types in respect to either form or content. OU courses are distance learning programmes (a blend of week-end courses, correspondence - sometimes via computer - and self-study), or regular evening classes. So far there have been very few attempts to use TV or radio, probably because the number of students is too small to support the production costs. They are part-time programmes, and a degree programme will usually take twice as long as the equivalent regular degree. The same examinations are taken by OU students as by full-time students at the same institution, and the degree is awarded by the mother institution.
The courses are often taught by the same people who teach the equivalent regular university courses. Not all subjects are offered every year, and whether a course is offered often depends on whether the institution has free teaching capacity. Some degree courses are offered (BA). In other cases the OU offers special courses at university level, which do not, however, lead to a qualification. In yet others, the programme leads to a qualification not available in the regular university system.
Not relevant as far as the Open University is concerned. On the language for business courses Community programmes provide students with increased opportunities to study abroad. See also comments in sections 2.1.3 and 4.1.
As the Candidate degree (in all 5-5.5 years of study in two subjects) is still regarded as a first degree, post-graduate degrees are Magister and PhD (see section 1.2.). Formerly there were no post-graduate programmes or specially arranged courses as such, students put together an individual programme of courses and research in consultation with a supervisor. This is still the case for Magister. Another type of course is the so-called 'supplementary' programme (suppleringsuddannelse). These usually constitute a one year module within the Candidate degree, but are sometimes taken by students who already have the degree, particularly as Open University courses. Examples: Foreign language pedagogy, and American studies. They do not presuppose much specific knowledge within the topic area.
The three year PhD has outline requirements as to attendance at courses, attendance at research conferences, teaching of undergraduates, and the production of regular research reports and a thesis. The detailed programme is still a matter of consultation between student and supervisor. Assessment is on the basis of a thesis and performance of a public lecture.
The introduction of these more structured requirements as to attendance at courses has heralded the introduction of special courses for PhD students. These are often short intensive courses (e.g. 2-5 days) based on inter-university cooperation (teachers from several universities), which are offered nationwide to all PhD students in the subject area. For language subjects, the courses are not necessarily language/culture specific. Some examples: courses in linguistic research methods, linguistic theories, theories of culture, historical method, etc.. A catalogue of courses will be produced each year from which the students can select. The reason for this organization is that in any one department there are too few PhD students to create a stimulating learning environment. To make the system workable, PhD students will receive a travel allowance, and departments/lecturers should be given appropriate funding and replacement costs.
The objective of these new programmes is presumably to produce a more streamlined and homogeneous system of higher degrees in order to attract more research students. This can be seen in the light of a projected future need for an increased number of qualified researchers/university staff in the humanities. It will also serve to increase comparability/compatibility with other countries' education systems.
The impact of Community programmes: To date none. The system is new, but it is obvious that PhD students will also be able to benefit from mobility grants and exchange opportunities.
Graduates with a BA degree: So far there are very few of these, and there is no information about their career prospects except that they have been having difficulty getting jobs at all in the present high unemployment situation.
Graduates with a Candidate degree: A large number of the graduates from 'traditional' language programmes go into second-level teaching at ordinary second-level schools or at commercial or technical second-level schools. Some go into the areas of public administration or business. Until the mid-80's it was difficult for these graduates to secure jobs in the business world, but in recent years they have moved successfully into areas such as personnel, marketing, public relations, and as information consultants or language/cultural consultants in large firms or the media.
Graduates in languages for business from the commercial universities may go into teaching at commercial second-level schools, but they are more likely to go into business and commerce as language consultants, translators/interpreters, or in the areas mentioned above for the other language graduates.
Graduates with a higher degree (above Candidate level): There are very few of these and they generally go into university-level teaching and research.
Accreditation as a teacher at a state primary school entails completion of a 4 year training course at a teacher training college (Lærerseminarium).
The teaching qualification for a state second-level school is a Candidate degree (preferably in two school subjects) plus a special in-service training programme (Pædagogikum).
At most universities, lecturers (adjunkt) appointed after 1993/4 must attend a short course in general pedagogy as part of the requirement for obtaining tenure.
Language teachers at other institutions, may or may not have these teaching qualifications.
This section deals only with the training of teachers for primary schools (Folkeskole, ages 7- 15/16).
There are 18 teacher training colleges (lærerseminarier) which are responsible for the training of primary school teachers.
The training consists of a 4 year full-time course of studies, which includes 20 weeks teaching practice in schools. The course is divided into two parts. In the first two years students take compulsory general subject courses, e.g. psychology, pedagogy, communication, and compulsory courses in a number of school subject areas, e.g. Danish, religion, natural sciences, mathematics, practical subjects, art. The second two years consist of intensive work on two chosen school subjects (e.g. 230 hours teaching in each subject including subject specific pedagogy), general teaching methodology (e.g. 88 lessons), and pedagogy in general (e.g. 190 lessons). Students choosing English, German or French as their special subjects do a language course including proficiency and language theory, literature, culture and society, and foreign language pedagogy.
As mentioned above teacher training is a four year full-time course of study, and for a foreign language teacher, language training and foreign language pedagogy constitute about two thirds of a year's work for each foreign language (max. two languages) spread over the last two years of the course. The courses take the form of lectures, seminar courses and some project work. Assessment is in the form of both written and oral exams, plus assessment of teaching practice.
In 1993/4 109 teacher trainees participated in exchange programmes, this compares with 6 in 1990/91. A large number of these went to Britain, and half were the so-called 'free movers', taking part within the framework of bilateral agreements. There are no statistics as to how many of these students had a foreign language as their special subject, nor has it been possible to find statistics as to how many foreign students came to the teacher training colleges in Denmark.
This section deals with three very different types of in- service training. Firstly, the training of second-level teachers; secondly, the further education of primary level teachers; thirdly, further training for teachers at all levels.
Probably none. No information available. Not necessarily relevant in this context.
This is a specialization available to language students at some universities. There is no specific qualification in this discipline. Most teachers of Danish as a second language will have teaching qualifications and Danish or another language as a major. If they are teaching outside the school system (e.g. teaching of refugees) they may not be accredited teachers, but may have a specialization from university, or a supplementary course in foreign language pedagogy (1 year full-time) from university or Open university. Or they may have attended some in-service training courses arranged by their schools or other organizations. This area is not well- organized, but increasing attention has been paid to it in recent years as immigration (mostly refugees) and the intake of minority language children to primary schools increase. As yet no clear structure is discernable and no specific qualification is generally required. Also, only a very limited selection of materials for teaching Danish as a foreign language have been published.
Community programmes have had some indirect impact in this area. The introduction at all the universities of short intensive Danish courses for visiting students has drawn further attention to the problem of teaching Danish as a second language.
Combination courses of language and business/economics are provided at some universites and at the three commercial universities (Handelshøjskoler). All the combination courses lead to Candidate degrees, they are designed as full 5-year Candidate courses, with the possibility of stopping with a BA degree after three years. In general, students spend about half their time on language studies (two foreign languages, a major and a minor chosen from English, French, Spanish, German, Russian) and half on (international) business studies and economics. In Copenhagen there is a special line with Japanese as major, in Odense with Arabic as major (6 years). In one case the first three years consist of a bilingual medium study taking place at a branch of the school in northern Germany.
Language options are offered with a number of other disciplines at university institutions and colleges, especially technical and engineering disciplines. These are elective courses in English or German, and form a very small part of the course of studies. Much of the literature in science and engineering disciplines, and a certain amount in social and political sciences, is in English or German. These language courses are therefore popular with the students. (See also section 2.1.3.)
Impact of Community programmes: A large proportion of the students on combination courses spend time abroad either studying or working in a firm, in some cases it is a requirement. Many of these take advantage of Community exchange programmes, but a large number also take part in bilateral programmes both inside and outside the Community, especially with the USA. No separate figures are available.
Students of business & management studies form by far the largest group going abroad on Community programmes (278 in 1993/4), with technology & engineering (187) in second place, and social sciences (147) in fourth place after language students (179). The introduction, and the popularity, of language options in these courses of study may be influenced by the existence of the Community programmes. (See also section 2.1.3.)
If we regard service courses as courses specially arranged for specific groups, either on demand or for general consumption (as opposed to the language options offered as an integrated part of a course of study), then there are no particular institutions or organizations which take care of this task. Departments arrange/purchase this kind of course independently, often for research students or staff. Courses will usually have a specific purposes bias, e.g. academic writing in English, participating in medical conferences, etc..
The absence of administrative frameworks is only one of the hindrances to setting up service courses. Even though there seems to be a need for such courses, it is likely that difficulties would be encountered in finding enough staff or staff with suitable expertise to set up service units, and funding would also be a major problem.
The only exception in this area is courses in Danish provided at the universities for foreign students, notably EU exchange students. These are arranged by the universities and usually consist of an intensive beginners' course in Danish, a series of lectures (usually in English) about the country and the culture in general, and about the university and the town in particular. And a third component may well be visits to places of interest in the vicinity. The courses vary in length from about 40 to 250 hours, in some cases the participants pay a fee in others there is no charge.
Obviously Community programmes had a decisive impact on the decision to inaugurate these courses.
Special training and research in translating and interpreting is carried out at the language faculties of the three commercial universities (Handelshøjskoler), and at universities offering a BA in languages for business. There is also a special translation unit at Copenhagen University, for language students interested in specializing. Only degrees from the former institutions provide accreditation as a translator/interpreter. EU accreditiation requires a further 6 months training.
In nearly all these programmes there is a focus on legal, technical and economic language, and the courses include such subjects as lexicography, linguistics, computer linguistics as well as the more traditional language, literature/culture and society subjects. The focus is often on the 20th century in both literature and society.
A BA graduate in languages for business (Erhvervssprog) (see section 2.2) can choose to build on a further 2-2.5 years study with a special focus on translation and interpreting leading to a Candidate degree. There is no clear distinction between programmes for translators and interpreters, the student may him/herself choose to specialize within the combined programme. The languages offered are English, German, French, Spanish, Russian and Italian. Not all of these are offered at all institutions.
Community programmes have so far had little impact on translators' and interpreters' programmes other than the opportunity to take part in exchanges.
These graduates' career prospects outside their chosen field are presumably on a par with the prospects of any language graduate at this level. There is a general tendency in the commercial sector to assume that any language graduate from a commercial university will be able to make translations, and a translation specialist not employed specifically for this purpose will probably be regarded simply as a language graduate. (See also section 2.4.)
I have subsumed the commercial universities (Handelshøjskoler) and the special university for pedagogy (Lærerhøjskolen), both degree awarding institutions which undertake research, under the university category, although they are not called 'universities' in Danish. Therefore, assuming that an institution of higher education is one that provides an accredited qualification, this category is not relevant except as regards teacher training (see above section 3.), and brief comments regarding other types of college (see section 4.1.)
The arts degree programmes in language studies have been modernising, both in content and structure. Though cut-backs in the 1980's delayed the process somewhat due to lack of staff, the situation is improving at the moment. Some new areas of importance to internationalization and the 'information' society have already been introduced into most courses of language study, e.g. media studies, the broadening of areas of interest to include all countries where a language is spoken, a move towards cultural studies.
The area of intercultural communication is still only available in a very few programmes, and should in my view be introduced as an essential element in all language degree courses in response to increasing international mobility (not least student mobility) and the increase in cross-cultural communication fuelled by technological advances (e.g.fax, e-mail, computer networks, databases, not to mention the telephone).
Also in reponse to increasing internationalization in all spheres, the establishment of study abroad as a fundamental part of a language degree should be a priority, and is a necessity for the less commonly studied languages (e.g. the EU languages Portuguese, Greek, Italian, Finnish).
A third area which needs resources is new technology. The use of Internet, video-discs, CD-rom, etc., in teaching is still limited. New uses need to be explored and researched, and resources are needed for both hardware, software, research, and the further education of teaching staff in the use of these media and their integration in teaching.
An additional possiblity, in order to fulfil the need for more people with expertise in the languages less commonly studied (e.g. Italian, Greek, Russian, Finnish, Hungarian), would be the introduction of options for study of the culture of these countries together with acquisition of a primarily receptive competence in the language.
Another area of concern is higher degrees. The number of students taking PhD degrees in languages is small, and of these a very small proportion focus on linguistic as opposed to literary or cultural topics. A great proportion of the linguistic PhD students study in areas of relevance to translation and/or to computer linguistics (very often at the commercial universities), though a centre of interest in intercultural communication research is being built up at Aalborg University Centre.
Specifically, the universities need to put more resources into the teaching of linguistic topics, which tend to be underrepresented at the lower levels. This leads to a lack of students interested in continuing to take higher degrees in linguistic topics. This situation is already leading to difficulties in finding qualified candidates to fill university positions, particularly on the linguistic side of language studies. The situation at the commercial universities is more balanced due to a greater focus on linguistic topics in the course of studies.
In general, the number of PhD students doing research in foreign language departments needs to be increased. Firstly, in order to stimulate renewal and progress in the programmes available and in order to meet future needs for increased linguistic and cultural awareness in all walks of life, secondly, to provide a bank of potential applicants for university positions (a large number of retirements are due in about 10-15 years time).
Generally speaking, language graduates move into secondary teaching, public administration and business. In all spheres internationalization, in the form of increased mobility and international communication (also by technological means), is an important factor. Graduates must be prepared to meet future demands in this area. Expertise in all forms of communication and a thorough understanding of cultures and cultural differences are two of the demands graduates have to meet. A third, especially relevant to future language teachers, is a knowledge of second language acquisition and of language pedagogy. Thus, there is a need, in addition to the areas mentioned in 7.1.1. above, for more faculty with research and teaching expertise in these areas, and these areas need to be incorporated into the language courses offered.
There are already one or two undergraduate programmes with a focus on wider international or cross-cultural aspects. But usually the focus in any language degree programme is on one or two languages with the associated culture(s), history, and literature.
There are no European Studies programmes as such. One could suggest the introduction of such programmes with a focus on culture/cultural differences and on acquiring receptive skills in one or two languages (preferably the less commonly studied ones) in addition to the primary language(s) studied. The introduction of this type of degree programme could be seen as a possible option for the future.
There are no specific post-graduate programmes with a 'multi'national focus, though individuals are able to choose such a focus.
The Danish courses offered to foreign students (see above section 4.2.) vary considerably from institution to institution, both in length, content and cost. A certain amount of standardization, preferably based on a survey of the needs of these students, would be an advantage.
Initial teacher training (teacher training colleges): There is a need to improve the language proficiency of future language teachers possibly through obligatory stays in a country where the language is spoken. There is also a definite need for more training in language theory and language pedagogy, especially in the light of a new primary school curriculum (starting autumn 1995) which has extensive communicative requirements based on theoretical considerations in relation to, for example, intercultural communication, language pragmatics, language processing, and learning and communication strategies.
In-service training: As far as the training of second-level teachers is concerned, more training in applied linguistics and language teaching methodology is absolutely necessary. Many language teachers have not attended any courses in language pedagogy, and possibly also very few in language theory, in the course of their university studies. As a result, their only training in language pedagogy is the practical guidance of an experienced teacher (who was probably trained in the same way) and a 2-3 day residential course with accompanying reading. Plus, as the years go by, the opportunity of attending short intensive courses arranged by various institutions (see 3.2.1. above).
One solution to this problem would be a longer period of in-service training including an extended applied linguistic component (for example 6 months full-time study) with courses in (foreign) language acquisition, language processing, language strategies, foreign language teaching materials and methodology, the teaching of literature, the integration of language and literature teaching, intercultural communication, and the use of modern technology in language teaching. The training could be organized as a post-graduate course taken at the university by newly appointed teachers before taking up their appointment, followed by in-service teaching practice as organized at present. This would give a one-year training period. Another possibility could be attendance at obligatory 'refresher' courses on a regular basis in order to update knowledge and skills.
General: A system also needs to be developed for training in applied linguistics and language methodology for language teachers outside the secondary and primary systems. Particularly the future need for teachers of special purpose language courses (e.g. service courses at universities/colleges, and language options in non-language programmes) has to be addressed (see below 7.3.).
At the universities and specialist colleges students in almost any discipline need to be able to use foreign languages in their studies at least receptively. Textbooks are not available in Danish in all topics and at all levels. Therefore in many disciplines even basic textbooks are foreign publications, most often in English. Publications in Swedish, Norwegian, German and French may also be used. Generally, the higher the level of study the larger the proportion of foreign language material.
This situation suggests firstly, a greater need for language options as an integral part of degree and other training programmes, e.g. elective or even obligatory courses specially geared to the discipline and its language needs (e.g. reading scientific texts, writing a research paper in English). And secondly, the need for the establishment of organizations/institutions within the universities and colleges offering regular service courses in foreign languages for specific purposes. The latter would also be relevant for research students and staff, who often travel abroad or are hosts for visiting researchers from abroad.
In the educational system a clearer distinction is needed between the training of translators and interpreters. Also more languages need to be offered, for example, postgraduate or candidate level courses focussed on training translation or interpreting from the less common national languages (e.g. Greek, Dutch, Finnish, Arabic, Japanese, Greenlandic), the regional or minority languages (e.g. Catalan, Swiss German), and also possibly from the related Scandinavian languages, Norwegian and Swedish. In the context of the EU this is particularly relevant.
In the 'consumers', particularly in business and in public administration, an appreciation of professionalism seems to be lacking. A greater understanding is needed that translation and interpreting are different types of expertise, that good quality translation and interpretation are necessary, and that special training is needed for both. The measures mentioned might help to improve the situation.
See comments under 7.2 and 7.3. re teacher training colleges and other colleges (e.g. engineering, etc.)
As the educational system in Denmark is fairly centralized, it is difficult to distinguish institutional from regional/national spheres of responsibility. Therefore throughout section 8 these have been conflated under one heading in each sub- section.
This section refers primarily to non-language programmes.
The names and addresses of the institutions in Denmark referred to in this report can be obtained from:
The Ministry of Education (Undervisningsministeriet)
Frederiksholms Kanal 26
DK-1220 Copenhagen K
Denmark
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