MASS MEDIA IN POST-REVOLUTION MONGOLIA
by John W. Williams [1],
Principia College, Elsah, IL 62028, USA
email
N.B.: Please consider this a work-in-progress. All comments,
suggestions, additions, and corrections are welcome,
and needed.
INTRODUCTION
As did almost every former communist regime, Mongolia under-
went a fundamental political revolution upon the collapse of
the Soviet Union. This paper considers the current state of
Mongolian mass media five years after its democratic revolu-
tion.
Mongolia once proudly proclaimed itself as the second com-
munist country. Its revolution occurred in 1921 and the Mon-
golian communist party, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary
Party, solidified its single party status by 1924. The 1921
revolution, supported by Bolshevik troops, removed the last
elements of Chinese suzerainty. Within a few years, the last
king of Mongolia died powerless and was not replaced. Paral-
leling Stalin's "Red Terror", Mongolia suffered similar ter-
ror under the dictator Choibalsan. In part as a buffer
against the Chinese, the Soviets stationed thousands of
troops in Mongolia. As with the other Soviet client states,
Mongolia was dependent of Soviet economic structure and aid.
The collapse of the Soviet Union, coupled with rapid with-
drawal of troops and the substantial economic subsidy, shook
Mongolia. Within months in early 1990, Mongolia underwent
its own relatively peaceful democratic revolution. The
revolution included legalization of multiple and opposing
political parties, a dramatically rewritten constitution, a
set of free and relatively fair legislative and presidential
elections, opening of the market economy, and freedom of the
press.
Newspapers are free yet highly partisan. Most are associated
with political parties or politically-motivated organiza-
tions. Publishing of print materials is hampered by access
to necessary resources, including newsprint. Broadcasting is
still controlled by the government and is widely available
as a result of satellite and land-line relays. Broadcasting
and telecommunications are hampered by technological limita-
tions, complicated by the severe economic crisis faced by
Mongolia, which was left stranded without Soviet subsidies
and with a poorly developed infrastructure.
Mongolia's population is estimated to be as high as
2,400,000 (CIA). However, Mongolians are outnumbered by over
25 million sheep, cows, goats, horses, yaks and camels
(Europa, Hunter). While a quarter of the population live in
or near the national capital of Ulaanbaatar, the majority of
Mongolians are nomadic wanderers or live in small provincial
or district towns. There is no clear indication of the
literacy rate, although education is compulsory and free for
the first eight years. One estimate places literacy at more
than 90% (State Department 1991, October 1993). Since over
half of Mongolians are still nomadic herders, children are
sent to boarding schools in provincial (aimag) or district
(sum) capitals.
There is a flourishing, though small, market economy. An ex-
tensive "black market" involving both legal and illegal
transactions occurs every Saturday, Sunday and Wednesday in
Ulaanbaatar. Roads in and out of the market area are jammed
with buses, ancient Soviet automobiles, and horse-drawn
carts. The state-owned department store and dozens of
private stores and stalls are stocked with goods. However,
economic change and development are hampered by lack of hard
currency, lack of an economic infrastructure capable of sur-
viving outside of the Soviet sphere, continued socialist
bureaucratic mentality, and continuation of the old com-
munist party apparatus in power, albeit under a different
name. One Mongolian, a former bureaucrat and now a committed
"democrat", described the situation as "outside is
democratic, inside is communist". Tapping the back of his
head in a uniquely Mongolian gesture, the man added, "It is
difficult to change the mentality. It's impossible to wash
their brains".
NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES
In 1990, there were 56 newspapers (Hunter), one daily and 55
non-dailies (UN), nationwide. The daily newspaper, the
government organ "People's Power", had a circulation of
162,000 and the non-dailies had combined circulation of
1,133,000 (UN). By 1994, there were some 18 principal "na-
tional newspapers" (Europa), as well as a weekly English
language newspaper, in Ulaanbaatar alone. The circulation of
"People's Power" collapsed in 1991 in the face of the
proliferation of opposition or competing newspapers. The
circulation collapse was hastened by a dramatic shortfall in
the availability of newsprint. In 1985, Mongolia consumed
3,800 metric tons of newsprint, while in 1991, this amount
had declined to 397 metric tons (UN).
In 1990, there were 45 periodicals nationwide (Hunter, UN)
with a combined circulation of 6,361,000 (UN). By 1994,
there were some 30 "principal" periodicals, not including
three English language magazines, distributed from the capi-
tal. Many of the magazines are published in Ulaanbaatar by
the government's Suhbaatar Publishing House (Europa).
Periodicals, especially newspapers, fall into three
categories: those published by government or quasi-
governmental organizations; those published by political
parties; and those considered "independent". Even the in-
dependent newspapers are acknowledged to have a political
position, usually critical of the government. Two of the
government periodicals are "People's Power" and "Government
News". Among the independent newspapers are "Open History",
"Blue Spot", "Democracy", and "Word". "Blue Spot" is named
after a temporary birthmark found on most Mongolian babies,
considered a mark of a true Mongolian. (Karlsrud and
Schultz, 1993) These types of newspapers, according to in-
formal interviews, are said to be "very democratic" or
"publish the truth".
Every person interviewed, including nomads, claimed to read
a newspaper "when available". This response, if honest,
reflects a high degree of literacy, coupled with the problem
of distribution of information.
Perhaps the most dramatic indication of a thriving open
press is the appearance of pornography. The tabloid "Hot
Blanket" features frontal nudity of Occidental women. The
tabloid is displayed by street vendors, with the public
spared only through bad printing, smudged inking, and poor
reproduction of the original pictures.
NEWS AGENCIES
The government controls the national news agency, Montsame,
short for Mongol Tsahilgaan Medeeniy Agentlag (Mongolian
News Agency), which is accorded the status of a government
directorate. It was founded in 1957 on the Soviet model. It
issues fortnightly bulletins in English, French and Russian.
The building housing Montsame and the "Mongol Messenger"
was severely damaged by fire in 1994. These agencies are
temporarily housed in the Central Post Office while the
original building is being renovated. (Corff, 1995) A sepa-
rate Sanpress, founded in 1992 after the democratic revolu-
tion, collects and distributes domestic and foreign news.
Two Russian news agencies (ITAR-TASS and RIA-Novosti), as
well as the Chinese Xinhua (New China) News Agency, maintain
bureaus in Ulaanbaatar.
BOOKS
In 1988, 6,699 books and brochures titles were published,
for a total of 7.8 million copies (Europa). The number of
copies rose to 8.4 million in 1989 (Europa). In 1990, 717
book titles alone were published, for a total of 6.4 million
copies (Hunter; Europa). Books are available from street
vendors and in book shops, including the state department
store. However, the quality of the paper and printing is
still poor. According to those who travel regularly to
Mongolia, the cost of books has soared (Corff, March 1995).
Dr. Oliver Corff, a scholar with the Free University in Ber-
lin who is involved with establishing transliteration stan-
dards for Mongolian, has monitored the publishing sector.
Recently, Corff summarized:
The overall situation in the publishing sector
(books, periodicals, etc.) has deteriorated. I did
not have a look at the ordinary bookstores. Just a
look at the offers of the book stalls on the stairs
of the university building showed that prices for
books have increased dramatically and that many
people seem to sell their libraries as I could dis-
cover many once unavailable books which all had
found their way from private hands to the tables of
the book-sellers. Many books had signs of heavy use
[...]. Others had signatures, margin notes, under-
lined passages and other similar traces of former
owners. (Corff, March 1995)
The primary publisher is the government's Suhbaatar Publish-
ing House in Ulaanbaatar. As recently as 1993, it published
70% of Mongolia's printed matter, including 12 central new-
spapers and 32 magazines (Europa). There are smaller
publishing houses in Ulaanbaatar and the provincial capitals.
Publishing is predominantly in the Cyrillic alphabet (im-
posed by the Soviets in 1941), with some publishing in bicig
(the original Mongolian) and in English.
BROADCASTING: RADIO AND TELEVISION
With the exception of one minor, rural radio station, all
broadcasting is controlled by the government. Responsibility
rests with the Directorate of Radio and Television Affairs,
a cabinet-level ministry. A 1,900 kilometer radio relay from
the capital of Ulaanbaatar in the north central part of the
country to the extreme western provincial capitals of Altai
and Olgii provides radio, television and direct-dial
telephone links. Radio relay lines have recently been built
from the national capital to far eastern provincial capitals
of Choybalsan, Suhbaatar and Saynshand. Television relays
have been inaugurated via Asiasat.
Radio was established in Mongolia in 1934. The government-
controlled Ulaanbaatar or Mongol Radio (Mongol Yaridz)
broadcasts two national programs in Mongolian and external
services in English, Chinese, Japanese, Kazakh and Russian.
By the time of the democratic revolution, there were 12 AM
stations and one FM station (CIA). Several sources indicate
a steady decline in the number of radio receivers in use,
from 226,200 in 1988, to 222,500 in 1989, to 205,600 in
1990, to under 186,000 today (Hunter, Europa). This may be
explained by the growing economic hardships and dislocations
caused by the shift to a market economy. Other sources
report increases to 297,000 radio receivers in 1991 (UN) and
360,000 radio receivers in 1993 (Banks). There are also
443,200 wired radio outlets in urban areas (Europa).
Television was established in Mongolia in 1967. Until
recently, all television was controlled directly by the
government. A new "independent" but government-financed
television company was formed in mid-1992 and started broad-
casting 30 hours of programming a week. Mongol Televidz
transmits daily locally produced programming and a variety
of foreign relays. Mongolian television receivers receive
broadcast from local transmitters or provincial repeaters.
These transmitters receive their signals either from relay
lines, land lines or Asiasat. Distribution of programming is
controlled by the state television monopoly.
There are, in effect, four television channels. This cau-
tionary description reflects the perception of Mongolians,
found in informal interviews, that there are many more chan-
nels. This is a result of the nature of the programming. Ac-
cording to the weekly television listing in the Mongolian-
language press, Mongolian language broadcasts air daily from
6 to 11 pm; Russian language (from Orbit 3 satellite) airs
from 7 to 10 am and 5:30 pm to 2 am; Japanese language (from
NHK, the Japanese network) airs from 7 to 8:35 am and 4:30
to 6 pm; and an assortment of languages air at various times
on various days ("Program of American Information" at 6 pm
and "Channel France International" from 10 to 11 pm on
Monday through Thursday; STAR TV on Friday, Saturday and
Sunday; some additional Russian broadcasts on Sunday). In-
stead of thinking of channels, Mongolians appear to think
about language programming. Hence, in interviews without a
printed television listing before them, Mongolians would
list two Russian channels, a Japanese channel, a French
channel, an American channel, and an international channel
with English and Chinese (a reference to STAR TV based out
of Hong Kong), in addition to the Mongolian state television
channel. The viewers were mixing language programming with
channels. When asked, they respond that Mongol television
broadcasts from early morning to late night, whereas some
sort of programming is broadcast throughout the day, though
not necessarily in Mongolian. There are reports of a
proposal for a 24-hour American-style channel, to start
operation in November 1995.
The state television channel broadcasts a mixture of films,
concerts and news. The broadcast schedule for Tuesday, July
4, was:
1800 News (what we might call news briefs)
1810 Repeat of a program titled "Rider with a Silver
Horse"
1900 Dubbed program titled "Inspector Derrick"
2000 Program titled "First Chamber", reporting on the
legislature
2020 Program described as "Interview by Journalist"
2040 A documentary on the seventieth anniversary of
automobile transportation
2100 News (including international news)
2130 Program titled "Recommendation"
2140 "Tele-Stock" (the nightly business report)
2150 "Official Transmission" (a government prepared
report)
2250 News (news brief)
2300 Sign-off
In 1990, there were some 137,400 television receivers in use
(Europa). Some sources indicate a decline in number of
television receivers to 90,000 in 1991 (UN) and 120,000 in
1993 (Hunter, CIA). Prior to the use of Asiasat, television
was distributed via 18 provincial repeaters (CIA). Televi-
sion receivers and antennas were found throughout Ulaan-
baatar, in provincial towns, and in rural areas. Nomads ob-
tain power through gasoline generators, old car batteries,
and, in one case, from a solar panel placed on the roof of
the ger (nomadic tent called a yurt by the Russians). Every
person interviewed claimed to have access to a television
receiver.
Russian television is transmitted via the Molniya satellite
and the Orbita ground station in Ulaanbaatar and by the Ekran
satellite system to population centers (Europa). Kazakh
television is received in the far western province of Bayan-
olgiy, where a substantial Kazakh minority live.
Satellite-distributed television is available in selected
sites, such as "luxury" hotels. Standard fare, based on
programming available at Ulaanbaatar's two luxury hotels, is
limited to Russian television (listed as RTV), one of the
Chinese national channels (CCTV), and services of STAR TV,
the Hong Kong-based continent-wide service. Among STAR's
services are STAR PLUS, Prime Sports, STAR (Japanese
language) and [V], STAR's version of MTV. (Economist, 1994)
One of the hotels receives CNN International's hotel news
service.
POST AND TELECOMMUNICATION
Mongolia has been known by philatelists for its creative and
colorful, though often very un-Mongolian stamps. One of the
most popular tourist stamps is of Mickey Mouse. In 1990,
there were 428 post offices (Hunter). With an exchange rate
of 450 tugrogs to one U.S. dollar, an international
postcard, regardless of destination, costs 44 tugrogs, or
about 10 cents.
In 1990, there were 341 telephone exchanges (Hunter). The
number of telephones has grown from 63,000 in 1989 (CIA), to
66,400 in 1990 (Hunter, UN), to 69,200 in 1992 (Europa).
There are only 3 telephones per 100 inhabitants (UN). Cel-
lular phones are not yet in use.
Internet connections are just now reaching into Mongolia,
which has been considered one of the "big bare spots" (Jack-
son, 1995).
FILM, CINEMA, VIDEO, THEATER
By the end of the Eighties, there were approximately 580
cinemas and theaters (UN). There were 30 cinemas, 522 mobile
cinemas and 30 theatres (Hunter). Annual attendance at films
and shows was estimated at over 20 million (UN). Central
Ulaanbaatar is filled with a variety of formerly state-
supported theatres, from dance, drama and music, to the
state circus. Among the popular movies are American
westerns. There is a small native film industry.
The most famous recent "Mongolian" film is "Urgha" or "Close
to Eden", copies of which are available for rent through
major video rental chains. The film, however, is a French-
Russian co-production set in and filmed in Chinese Inner
Mongolia. The director, Nikita Mikhalkov, received recent
acclaim by winning the 1995 Academy Award for Best Foreign
Film for "Burnt by the Sun". "Urgha" is a human, affec-
tionate, lyrical and funny study of Mongolian life and con-
flict of cultures. An urgha is the lasso on the end of a
pole used by Mongolian nomads to catch animals. When stuck
upright in the steppes, it serves to warn interlopers that a
young man is romancing a young woman nearby.
Another film making the rounds of Western art theaters is
"Johanna D'Arc of Mongolia". It is the story of seven
Western women kidnapped by a group of female Mongolian war-
riors off of the Trans-Siberian Railroad and taken to a Mon-
golian village. The 1989 movie is a West German production,
with English subtitles. The primary focus of the film is
cultural interaction and conflict, and the plot serves as
filler between scenes of traditional Mongolian culture and
countryside.
Mongolian films have made it to the Fukuoka International
Film Festival (Japan, September 1993) and the 44th Interna-
tional Film Festival "Berlinale" (Germany, Spring 1994)
(Corff). Twelve films were screened at The Asian Art Museum
of San Francisco in its series "Waves of Conflict: Mongolia
in Transformation" (Fall 1995). Half of the films are ac-
tually Mongolian productions, including "Son of Mongolia"
(1936), "Mirage Above the Gobi Desert" (1980), "An Un-
fortunate Fortune" (1991), "Shackles" (1991), and "Saint in
a Turbulent Age" (1992). A catalog of Mongolian films and
film reviews is begin developed by Infosystem Mongolei, an
Internet-based electronic journal on Mongolian affairs based
out of the Free University of Berlin. (Infosystem Mongolei)
Mongolia is on the PAL video system. Video players are
available, though there is little evidence of much video
use.
The most up-to-date models of Polaroid cameras are visible
throughout Ulaanbaatar. Dozens of entrepreneural photo-
graphers set up stands in Sukhbaatar Square in the center of
the capital with props, such as large stuffed teddy bears or
inflatable Santa Claus dolls, and displays of photographs.
Some of the more sophisticated photographers have 35
milimeter cameras, with film that requires processing. Mon-
golian families and individuals pose for and pay for their
pictures. During Naadam, the three days of national sports
celebration in mid-July, Polaroid photographers roam the
crowds, hawking their services.
LANGUAGE
One of the legacies of Soviet influence and occupation was
the replacement of the traditional Mongolian alphabet or
"bicig" with the Russian Cyrillic in 1946. As a consequence
of the revolution of 1990, the state mandated a return to
the traditional Mongolian script by 1994. The plan failed
and the year 2000 has been set as a new target date. Teach-
ing of the original script has resumed in schools, but the
population has doggedly held to the Cyrillic, in part bec-
ause whole generations schooled between the end of the
Second World War and the fall of the Berlin Wall are il-
literate in the original script. The script, eventually
based on Aramaeic roots conveyed through Sogdian and Uighur
(whence its name "Uighur script"), is written vertically and
looks similar to Arabic. Spoken Mongol is an Altaic
language, derived from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia.
It is related to Turkic (including Uzbek, Turkish and
Kazakh), Korean and, possibly, Japanese. In an attempt to
standardize the transition back to bicig, scholars are in-
volved in the romanization of the bicig characters, as
strange as this may seem. This allows for development of
translation dictionaries between European languages and Mon-
golian, as well as uses in the Western press, in computers,
and in library cataloging. (Corff, June 1995)
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
Freedom of speech, press and "opinion" is provided for in
the new 1992 Constitution. The U.S. Department of State, in
its annual report on human rights practices, reports that
these freedoms are respected in practice (1993, 1994, 1995).
Lively debate covers a broad range of political, economic,
and social topics. The press have been able to confront the
senior officials in reported press conferences. The follow-
ing exchange with the President's chancellery, reported in
the English-language newspaper, indicates some of the adver-
sarial relationship between the press and the government:
Question: What is the stance of the President's
Chancellery about the negatively-toned criticism
raised by the mass media during the presentation of
[the report on China's wiretapping of the Mongolian
embassy in Beijing]? (Montsame, the state news ser-
vice)
Answer: We shall accept any criticism which would
help our activities but not mere declaration and
denying what has been done.
Question: What is the reaction on Ts. Dashdondov's
article published in Zasgiin Gazryn Medee and open
letters issued by Ulaanbaatar and other newspapers?
Answer: The Chancellery administration is not
satisfied with the fact that some newspapers print
biased information accusing the head of state and
blackmailing what has been achieved. Letters of the
Centre for Public Knowledge, of the Association 281,
of the Front for the Patriotic Unity, the organiza-
tions not officially registered in the Ministry of
Justice, were published in the press. (Mongol Mes-
senger)
Political parties must be registered with the Ministry of
Justice. Freedom of assembly is honored. Two days before the
national independence celebrations, school teachers staged a
major protest in Sukhbaatar or Liberty Square (Mongolia's
equivalent to Red Square or Tienanmien Square). The English-
language newspaper reported their protest,
"Teachers on strike held another meeting on the
Liberty Square here in Ulaanbaatar... Teachers have
officially declared, if their demands are refused, a
nationwide strike will follow in September." (Mongol
Messenger)
Newspapers have been able to publish and circulate freely. A
variety of newspapers, including the pornographic newspaper
"Hot Blanket", are readily available for sale on the street.
Newsprint shortages have prevented newspapers from appearing
regularly. Some newspapers have been able to import news-
print directly or obtain it as a gift. Through the early
1990s, the government controlled the allocation of newsprint
imported through official trade. Freedom House reported at
the time that "the written press faces restrictions because
the government controls the distribution of newsprint" (p.
370). Opposition parties and publishers alleged that limita-
tions on newsprint effectively prevented them from publish-
ing as frequently as the MPRP organ, Unen (Human Rights
Practices). However, according the most recent U.S. State
Department human rights reports, the government has with-
drawn from the newsprint distribution process, and all news-
papers buy directly from private suppliers. Neither party-
affiliated nor independent newspapers report difficulty in
securing newsprint, however, "due to transportation dif-
ficulties, uneven postal service, and the fluctuations in
the amount of newsprint available, in outlying regions ac-
cess to publications is somewhat restricted" (U.S. State
Department, 1995).
Freedom House reported that "although all radio and televi-
sion stations are government-owned (with the exception of
one minor rural station), opposition viewpoints are aired"
(p. 370). Both the opposition and the government have
criticized Mongolian television's coverage. According to the
U.S. State Department, Mongolian television regularly broad-
casts the views of opposition parties as well as of the
government, and its news programs are generally considered
balanced (Human Rights Practices).
Freedom House has, since 1979, issued annual ratings of
press freedom around the world. The current survey rates na-
tional print and broadcast freedom on four topics: laws and
regulation that influence media content (the actual impact
of law as and legal practices, not the ceremonial commitment
to press freedom); political pressures and controls on media
content (government pressure on the content of either
privately owned or state owned media); economic influences
over media content (economic pressures, favoritism or
reprisals by either the private or government sectors); and
repressive actions, including the killing of journalists,
physical violence against journalists or facilities, censor-
ship, self-censorship, harassment, or expulsion. The first
three items are rated on a 0 to 10 scale while the fourth
item is rated on a 0 to 20 scale. Broadcast and print press
freedom are evaluated separately. The total rating ranges
from 0 to 100, with a free nation rated between 0-30, a
partly free nation rated between 31-60, and a not-free na-
tion rated between 61-100. The 1994 Freedom House report
rated Mongolia at 40 or partly free [2]. Freedom House sum-
marized the situation in the "ex-Soviets", specifically in-
cluding Mongolia, as:
Diverse and competitive news media which are in-
dependent of government or the ruling party are, in-
deed, difficult to create where market economies do
not yet function. Bureaucrats from the communist era
still serve major print and broadcast systems. More
than 90 percent of magazines and newspapers are dis-
tributed by the post office. By putting pressure on
this monopoly, the new government can harass
publishers... Journalists, moreover, still practice
self-censorship and display polemical rather than
balanced reportorial styles. For such reasons, the
news media in these formerly Soviet-associated
states are deemed party free... Mongolia... (p. 5)
The Freedom House rated Mongolia as having laws and regula-
tions that influence media content, rating broadcasting at
10 and print at 6, with 10 the most restrictive rating.
While the report does not provide detail, these ratings may
reflect state ownership or control of radio and television,
and the failure to promulgate specific legislation protect-
ing press freedom. According to the report's explanation, a
10 rating on broadcasting is assigned if all the broadcast
media are owned by government with no dissent allowed. This
may be a harsh rating given the opposition's ability to gain
access to the broadcast media, especially during the recent
elections. Freedom House rated Mongolia as having political
pressures and controls on media content, rating broadcasting
at 6 and print at 9. This may reflect the political orienta-
tion and sponsorship of the print media, while state radio
and television have been under pressure to permit access of
alternative viewpoints. Mongolia was rated as having
economic influences over media content, rating broadcasting
at 6 and print at 8. This may reflect state support for
broadcasting, while periodicals are supported by political
parties, political organizations, or governmental agencies
with specific political agenda. Freedom House gives Mongolia
a 0, the best possible rating, on repressive actions against
the media. Finally, the Freedom House report does indicate
general trends of improvement or deterioration in press
freedom. The 1994 report provides no indication of any
change in Mongolia's press freedom.
During the 1992 legislative elections for the State Great
Hural (the unicameral parliament), all parties and
candidates were given free and equal broadcast time on Mon-
golian radio and television, and space in the government
newspaper Ardyn Erh (People's Power) on the basis of a
mutually agreed lottery (U.S. State Department, 1993). State
television and radio report both opposition and government
views. In response to a 1993 threat by opposition parties to
withdraw from the Great Hural, the government briefly
granted opposition parties limited access to both broadcast
and print media. Revocation of this access contributed to
the declaration of a two-week hunger strike in April 1994.
Called by the Mongolian Democratic Union, the strike was
reminiscent of the similar action that helped spark the pro-
democracy movement in 1990. The strike, staged in Ulaan-
baatar's central square, drew the support of opposition
parties and provoked a counterstrike by government sup-
porters from the former communist party, the Mongolian
People's Revolutionary Party. President Ochirbat, first
elected by the ruling MPRP then re-elected as the opposition
parties' candidate, mediated an end to the strike with a
promises to introduce new legislation codifying the con-
stitutional right of free expression. The strikes ended when
the three parties with seats in the Great Hural agreed to
discussion news legislation dealing with press freedom and
the right of assembly. The proposed legislation, however,
was not passed by the end of the year. (U.S. State Depart-
ment, 1995)
Draft laws on freedom of the press and elections were not
passed by the Great Hural during its spring session,
although the national legislature approved a package of laws
on state secrets and state security, and held a first read-
ing of a draft law on "the opinion poll of the citizens"
(Mongol Messenger).
The development of a free and vigorous press, as with a free
and growing democracy, is dependent of economic conditions.
"Prospects for development", according to the U.S. State
Department, "are constrained by Mongolia's land-locked loca-
tion and lack of basic infrastructure" (Dispatch 1993). The
transition to democracy has been economically painful. Ac-
cording to the Economist,
Mongolia's GDP declined in the four years from 1989
to 1993. The cumulative loss in national income came
to 20%, real private consumption per person dropped
by a third, and real investment by two-thirds. In-
flation reached 330% in 1993 and exports and imports
fell by more than half between 1990 and 1993. Ac-
cording to official figures, one Mongolian in every
four now lives below the poverty line of $8 per
month. (Economist, November 1994)
APPENDIX I
MAJOR MONGOLIAN NEWSPAPERS
English title of estimated affiliation frequency
newspaper & year of circula-
establishment tion
Truth (1920) 150,000 MPRP (former communist 2x wk
party) organ
People's Power (1924, 78,000 Great Hural and Cabinet wkdays
1990)
Mongolian Youth 76,300 Revolutionary Youth 3x month
(1924) League
Labor (1928) 64,900 Mongolian Trade Union 6x month
Federation
Woodpecker 54,000 Union of Writers 16x year
(satire)
Capital's Newspaper 39,700 Ulaanbaatar People's wkly
(1954) Revolutionary Party
Committee
Ulaanbaatar (1990) 31,000 Ulaanbaatar City Execu- wkdays
tive Administration
The Word (1990) 30,300 Social Democratic Party wkly
(opposition party)
Freedom 30,000 National Democratic 3x month
Party (opposition
party)
Mongolian Sport National Olympic Com- wkly
mittee
Independence (1930) 24,700 Ministry of Defense 3x month
Mongolian Countryside 21,500 Association of 3x month
(1961) Herdsmen, Association
of Cropgrowers, Na-
tional Association of
Agricultural Co-
operative Members
Teacher (1989) 17,600 Ministry of Science and 3x month
Education
Openness (1990) 15,000 Montsame, government 3x month
news agency
Mongolian Co- 15,000 Association of Produc- 2x month
operative tion & Service Coops
Free Tribune 10,000 United Association of 3x month
Free Trade Unions
Literature (1955) 3,000 Union of Writers 2x month
The Mongol Messenger 1,200 Montsame News Service wkly
(1991) (in English)
Harmony (1990) Nat'l Assoc. of Free 2x month
Writers & Translators
The Mongolian In- (in English) 2x month
dependent (1993)
(Banks; Europa)
APPENDIX II
MAJOR MONGOLIAN MAGAZINES
English title of estimated affiliation frequency
magazine & year of circula-
establishment tion
Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences 4x year
News (1961)
Beautiful Doe (1925) 75,000 Association of Women 4x year
Business Times (1991) National Information
Centre
(advertising)
Cross Opinion (1991) "Unen" (Truth), MPRP 2x month
organ
East-West (1978) Institute of Oriental 4x year
and International Stu-
dies of Academy of
Sciences
(scientific and socio-
political journal)
Education Ministry of Science and 8x year
Education
Fire (1991) Mongolian Cultural
Foundation
(non-political cultural
journal)
Foreign Trade of Chamber of Commerce and 2x year
Mongolia Industry
(in English)
Friendly Magpies for students of monthly
(1991) English, with parallel
texts in English and
Mongolian
Government News governmental decrees 2x week
(1991) and resolutions
Growing Up 23,400 Ministry of Science and 2x month
Education
Health Ministry of Health 4x year
Herdsman 4x year
Hope Plus Technology Assoc. of Private monthly
(1991) Manufacturers
Human Rights (1991) Voluntary Committee for 4x year
Defence of Human
Rights, and Mongolian
Section of Amnesty In-
ternational
Interpretation and 15,000 MPRP 4x year
Contemplation (theoretical and
political magazine)
Ironic Laugh (1990) independent monthly
(satire)
Journalist (1982) 4,000 Union of Journalists 4x year
(journalism, politics,
economics, literature,
art)
Legal Information Ministry of Law monthly
(1990)
Legality Procurator's Office, 4x year
Supreme Court, and Min-
istry of Law
Market (1990) Ministry of Trade and wkly
Industry
Mongolian Agriculture Ministry of Food and 4x year
Agriculture, and Union
of Agricultural Produc-
tion Associations
Mongolian Beauty 20,000 Association of Women 3x month
(1990)
Mongolian Medicine Ministry of Health and 4x year
Scientific Society of
Physicians
Mongolian Novel 2,000 Union of Writers 2x year
(1989)
Publicity Herald National Information 2x week
(1991) Centre
(theater, cinema, tv
programs and advertise-
ments)
Science and Life 20,000 Academy of Sciences 4x year
(1935)
Spark (1944) 2,000 Union of Writers 2x year
State Information 10,000 goverment decrees, 10x year
(1990) state laws, par-
liamentary news
Stockmarket News wkly
(1991)
SOURCES
Banks, Arthur S., ed., Mongolia, Political Handbook of the
World: 1994-1995, CSA Publications, State University of
New York, Binghamton, New York, October 1, 1994.
Central Intelligence Agency, "Mongolia", World Fact Book,
August 3, 1994.
Corff, Oliver, "Impressions from a recent trip to Ulaan-
baatar", Infosystem Mongolei (electronic journal), Free
University, Berlin, 9 March 1995.
Corff, Oliver, "Writing Systems", Infosystem Mongolei (elec-
tronic journal), Free University, Berlin, 13 June 1995.
Economist, "Wired Planet", The Economist, Vol. 330, No.
7850, p. 12, February 12, 1994.
Economist, "Bare Cupboards", The Economist, Vol. 333, No.
7891, p. 37, November 26, 1994.
Freedom House, Good News and Bad: Press Freedom Worldwide:
1994. Freedom House, New York.
Hunter, Brian, editor. "Mongolia", The Statesman's Year-
Book, 1994-1995. St. Martin's Press, New York.
Infosystem Mongolei - An Internet-based Journal on Mongolian
Affairs, editor, Oliver Corff, gopher: gopher.fu-
berlin.de, e-mail: infomong@zedat.fu-berlin.de.
Jackson, James O., "It's a Wired, Wired World", Time, Vol.
145, No. 12 (special issue), p. 80, Spring 1995.
Karlsrud, Katherin, and Dodi Schultz, "What to do about
birthmarks", Parents, Vol. 68, No. 9, p 70, September
1993.
McColm, I. R. Bruce, et. al., editors. Freedom in the World,
1992-1993. Freedom House, New York.
Mikhalkov, Nikita, dir., Michel Seydoux, prod., "Urgha"
("Close to Eden"), Images France (France) and Studio
Trite (USSR) (English subtitles) (color), 1991.
"Mongolia", The Europa World Year Book 1994, Vol. II, Europa
Publications Limited.
Mongol Messenger, weekly English language newspaper, Ulaanbaatar.
Ottinger, Ulrike, dir., "Johanna D'Arc of Mongolia," West
Germany (English subtitles) (color, 165 minutes), 1989.
People's Power (English translation of Mongolian title "Ar-
dyn Erkh"), Mongolian-language daily newspaper,
published by Great Hural and Cabinet, Ulaanbaatar.
United Nations, Department for Economic and Social Informa-
tion and Policy Analysis, Statistical Division, Stati-
stical Yearbook, 1992, Thirty-Ninth Issue, December 31,
1993.
U.S. Department of State, "Mongolia", U.S. Department of
State Dispatch, Vol. 2, No. 5, February 4, 1991.
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and Labor, "1994 Human Rights: Mongolia", Country
Reports, Human Rights Practices, 1994 Annual Report,
U.S. Department of State, February 1, 1995.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Human Rights and
Humanitarian Affairs, "1992 Human Rights: Mongolia",
Country Reports, Human Rights Practices: 1992, U.S.
Department of State, February 15, 1993.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Human Rights and
Humanitarian Affairs, "1993 Human Rights: Mongolia",
Country Reports, Human Rights Practices, 1993 Annual
Report, U.S. Department of State, January 31, 1994.
U.S. Department of State, Office of Public Communication,
Bureau of Public Affairs, "Fact Sheet: Mongolia", U.S.
Department of State Dispatch, Vol. 4, No. 35, August
1993.
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Bureau of Public Affairs, Background Note: Mongolia, Oc-
tober 15, 1993.
NOTES
[1] The author spent two weeks in Mongolia during July 1995,
traveling to Ulaanbaatar, the capital, and to various
provincial and district capitals, to interview, collect
data, and observe the transition to democracy and a
market economy. The research coincided with the national
day celebration and the national games, known as Naadam,
in which people from all over the country travel to the
capital for three days of festivities, focused on the
national sports of wrestling, archery and horse racing.
Perhaps due to the continuing powerful role of former
communists in the government, the professional sources
asked not to be identified by name. Almost all of these
sources spoke English. Citizen "interviews" were
generally informal discussions, through an interpreter,
about everyday life, including media use and political
attitudes. The author wandered through the ger encamp-
ments with an interpreter to talk with nomads who
gathered for the national games.
[2] To put Mongolia is some context, Freedom House rated In-
dia (38), Indonesia (58), Malaysia (58), Pakistan (58),
Singapore (60), Thailand (60), and Turkey (59).